anatomy is an almost direct borrowing of the
Greek anatome, the Greeks being among the
first to systematically dissect the human
body. The Greek word is a compound of ana-,
"up or through," + tome, "a cutting." Thus,
the earlier anatomy was a "cutting up," and
dissection remains to this day the essential
means of learning the structure of the body.
The study of the human body fell into disrepute during the so-called Dark Ages. Andreas
Vesalius (1514-1564), the renowned Flemish
anatomist, is generally credited with being
"the Father of Modern Anatomy," because
the study was revived with his publication of
De Humani Corporis Fabrica ("The Structure of
the Human Body") in 1543. Its wealth of
detail and many woodcut illustrations forever changed medical education in the West.
androgendesignates a sex hormone that occurs
naturally in both men and women but, when
present in excess from either an endogenous
or exogenous source, tends to stimulate development of male characteristics. The term
was contrived from the Greek andros, "man,"
- gennao, "I produce." Thus, an androgen
can be fancied as a "man maker." Unfortunately, misguided athletes have been known
to take this notion literally.
androgynism is a condition wherein both
male and female traits are evidentin a single
person. A derivative of the Greek gyne,
"woman," is tacked on to "andro-."
Andromeda strain is a term applied to any
microorganism whose accidental release
from a laboratory might have catastrophic
effects because its potential properties are
incompletely known. In Greek mythology,
Andromeda was a ravishing Ethiopian princess rescued from the clutches of an evil monster by Perseus. Her name was given to a
genus of evergreen shrubs and also to a constellation in the northern sky. From the latter,
Michael Crichton took the title of his 1969
novel in which an unknown type of bacteria
escapes from a returning space probe and
threatens to contaminate planet Earth.
anemia is from the Greek an-, "without," +
haima, "blood." Hence, a patient who is
anemic is wanting in blood. The British
spelling, more properly, is "anaemia." Incidentally, there is a genus of plants called
Anemone, but this is of quite a different
origin. The plants were popularly known as
"wind flowers," and the name presumably
comes from the Greek anemos, "wind." Sea
anemones are brightly colored polypoid creatures of the order Actiniaria and were named
after the flower.
anesthesia comes directly from the Greek an-,
"without," + aisthesis, "feeling or sensation."
The British, more faithful to the Greek, spell
it "anaesthesia.” In medicine, anesthesia has
come to have two meanings: (a) the symptom
wherein a part of the body has lost perception of pain or touch, and (b) the procedure
whereby a patient has been rendered incapable ofsensation, either by inducing a state of
total unconsciousness (general anesthesia) or
by blocking the neural pathway of sensation
14
aneurysm anlage
in a part of the body (local or regional anesthesia). Both meanings were known and used
in ancient times. Herodotus referred to the
effect of inhaling the vapor from burning
hemp, now known to be the result of liberated cannabis. A diminished but not absent
perception is hypesthesia (Greek hypo-,
"below"), whereas an enhanced perception is
hyperesthesia (Greek hyper-, "above"). To
Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894) goes
the credit for aptly applying the Greek term
to the use of ether to abolish the pain of
surgery. This he did in a letter dated 21
November 1846 addressed to William T. G.
Morton, the dentist who had successfully
demonstrated the procedure only a month
before at Massachusetts General Hospital in
Boston.
aneurysm is a near borrowing of the Greek
aneurysma, "a widening," which comprises
ana-, "up, through," + eurynein, "to widen."
In pathology the term designates a localized
dilatation of an artery. There are berry
aneurysms (the allusion is obvious), fusiform aneurysms (shaped like a spindle),
miliary aneurysms (tiny, like millet seeds),
and racemose aneurysms (clustered like a
bunch of grapes), among other types.
angi- is a combining form derived from the
Greek a[n]geion, "a vessel." The reference in
medicine is to a conduit for any of the body
fluids, notably blood, lymph, or bile. From
"angi-" have come such present-day medical
words as angiology, angiogram, lymphangioma, and cholangitis.
angina is a Latin word meaning "sore throat"
and comes from the Latin verb angere, "to
choke or throttle.” In former years, sublingual cellulitis, often with abscess, was known
as Ludwig’s angina after the German surgeon
Wilhelm von Ludwig (1790-1865). "Trench
mouth" or necrotizing gingivitis was called
Vincent's angina, after the Parisian physician
Henri Vincent (1862-1950). Today, "angina"
usually is taken to mean angina pectoris
(Latin pectus, "the chest"), the familiar crushing retrosternal pain resulting from myocardial ischemia. This relation to ischemia
has led "angina" far afield, and one may
hear of "abdominal angina” in reference to
severe pain in the abdomen resulting from
constriction of the mesenteric arteries. An
etymologist might regard this as "abominable angina."
angiogenesis tacks a derivative of the Greek
gennan, "to produce," to "angio-" to designate a type of neovascularization, particularly that which occurs in neoplasia. One
means of impeding neoplasia is suppression
of angiogenesis, which may also lessen the
chance of metastasis,
angiorrhexis (see rhexis)
angulus is a direct borrowing ofthe Latin word
for "angle” when referring to the bend in the
stomach at the junction of its body and
antrum.
animal is derived from the Latin animus,
"breath, spirit, or soul," related to the Greek
anemos, "wind." In this sense, an animal can
be any breathing thing, but its use is restricted to those life forms distinct from
plants. From the same source comes our adjective "animated" meaning spirited or full of
life, but also "animosity" meaning enmity,
anion (see ion)
anisocoria (see pupil)
anisocytosis (see cyto-)
ankle comes from the Old English ancleow,
which may be distantly related to the Greek
a[n]kylos, "bent or at an angle," referring to
the relation between the foot and the leg.
ankyl- is a combining form that means "bent,"
as in the form of a loop or noose, and is derived from the Greek a[n]kyle, "the bend in the
arm" and also "the looped thong by which a
javelin is hurled." The Greek a[n]kylos means
"bent or crooked." The Latin equivalentis angulus, from which we get “angle.” Ankylostoma (ankyl- + Greek stoma, "mouth”) is a
genus of nematode parasites, including the
hookworms. This worm finds it way to the intestine where it hooks onto the mucosa by
means of its crooked mouth. Ankylosis
refers to a fixation of joints, either by disease
or design, usually in a bent position,
anlage is a German word meaning "a plan or
arrangement." The noun is derived from the
verb anlegen, literally "to lay on," particularly
in the sense of "to prepare or set up.” Biologically, an anlage is whatever precedes or
"sets the stage" for something else. In embryology, an anlage is a forerunner or precursor
15
annulus anthracosis
of a more mature structure. This is distinct
from an analog (or analogue), a part or an
organ having the same function as another
but of a different evolutionary origin.
"Analog" is related to the Greek analogos,
"proportionate, or in conformity with." (see
homologue)
annulus means "a ring" but appears to be a
misspelling ofthe Latin anulus, “a little ring,"
as that which encircles, such as a ring worn
on a finger, being a diminutive of the Latin
anus, a ring of more substantial size. Perhaps
the confusion was with the Latin annus, "a
year," thought of as a circuit. In any event,
the spelling was corrected in a more recent
publication of Nomina Anatomica, the official pronouncement of the International
Congress of Anatomists. By the same token,
annular, "shaped like a ring," should be
spelled "anular," but it isn't and probably
never will be.
anode (see ion)
anodyne is a word seldom heard today, but formerly it was commonly used for any painkiller. It comes from the Greek an-, "without,"
- odyne, "pain." Opium and its derivatives,
for example, were and are anodynes.
anomaly refers to any deviation from the
normal and comes from the Greek an-, "not,"
- omalos, "even or level" and, metaphorically, "average or ordinary." In biology an
anomaly is usually a structure or organ that
is congenitally abnormal, but the word can
be used to refer to anything thatis out of the
ordinary.
anomia (see a-)
Anopheles is the name given to a genus of
mosquitoes notorious for transmitting the
malarial parasite and thus is directly implicated in perpetuating what is probably the
commonest disease of man worldwide. The
name comes from the Greek an-, "not," +
ophelos, "of advantage or use," and was bestowed on this pesky creature long before it
was identified as the vector of malaria by Sir
Ronald Ross (1857-1932) in 1898. Incidentally,
knowing the origin of this mosquito's name
also tells us the meaning of the feminine
name Ophelia: "useful." Mosquito, incidentally, is the diminutive ofthe Spanish mosca,
"a fly," from the Latin musca.
anorexia comes from the Greek an-, "lack of," +
orexis, "appetite," and it still means just that.
Incidentally, "Orexin" is the trade name of a
vitamin B supplement purveyed purportedly
as a stimulant to appetite. The Greek orexis
could also mean any other sort of yearning,
and perhaps that might account for a form of
the male hormone, testosterone, trade named
"Oreton." It seems marketers know their
Greek, or, if not, know someone who does.
anosmia comes from the Greek an-, "lack of," +
osme, "smell," and refers to the condition
wherein the sense of smell is lost. The element osmium is said to have been so named
because ofthe distinctive odor ofits vaporous
oxide (0s04). The Greek osme is notto be confused with osmos, "impulse" from which
comes "osmosis."
anoxia means a total lack of oxygen but is
often used interchangeably with hypoxia
(q.v.). The word derives from the Greek an-,
"lack of," + oxys, "sharp," in the sense of
"acid." (see oxygen)
ansa is the Latin word for "handle" but could
also mean "a loop, as used to fasten a
sandal." In anatomy the word is used for various loop-like structures, particularly small
loops of nerves.
antagonist is used in anatomy to designate a
muscle that opposes the action of another
muscle, and in pharmacology to designate a
substance having a blocking or opposing
effect. Thus, extensor muscles are antagonists
of flexor muscles, and beta-adrenergic blocking agents, such as propranolol, are antagonists of certain actions of epinephrine and
other sympathomimetic amines. The Greek
antagonixomai means "to struggle against,"
and antagonistes means “an adversary or
rival." These words, in turn, come from anti-,
"against," + agon, "struggle." (see agony)
antecubital locates the fossa or hollow in front
ofthe elbow (Latin ante, "before or in front" +
cubitum, "the elbow"). A related term is
"cubit," an archaic unit of measure, being
the distance from the elbow to the fingertips.
anthracosis is a lung disease caused by inhaling coal dust and thereby often afflicts
coal miners. The condition also is called
"black lung disease." The name was taken
from the Greek anthrax, "coal,” which by
16
anthrax antisepsis
direct borrowing had, much earlier, been
used as the name for a quite different disease,
as noted below.
anthrax is an infectious disease of wild and domesticated animals that can be transmitted
to man. Its principal feature is a carbuncle
that can become necrotic and ulcerated. Such
a lesion can have a hard, black center surrounded by red inflammation, resembling a
burning chunk of coal and thus accounting
for its name, taken directly from the Greek
anthrax, "coal." The causative organism,
Bacillus anthracis, can lurk in the hides or
wool from infected animals, and human anthrax has been known as "woolsorter's disease," among other names. The development
of a vaccine effective against anthrax in
sheep went far to advance the career of Louis
Pasteur (1822-1895), the celebrated French
bacteriologist.
anthropo- is a combining form taken from the
Greek anthropos, "a man." This has given us
numerous words, such as anthropocentric
(a perspective that places man at the center
of the universe), anthropoid, "like a man,"
in reference to certain subhuman primates),
anthropology (the study or science of
man), and anthropomorphism (the attribution of human form or character to nonhufnan objects, such as classical deities).
antibiotic derives from the Greek anti-,
"against," + biotos, "the means of life." The
word has had different meanings through the
centuries. Ancient philosophers may have
used a similar word to mean resistance, in
the sense of dealing with the vicissitudes of
life. In the 19th century, "antibiotic" referred
to a belief opposed to the possibility oflife, as
on other planets. The modern medical use of
the word was introduced in 1941 by Selman
A. Waksman (1888-1973), who reported finding a strain of actinomyces, an extract of
which inhibited the growth of some bacteria.
In 1929 Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) first
reported an antagonism between certain microorganisms, but it was Selman Waksman
who adapted "antibiotic" to the process.
antibody is a word contrived in the late 19th
century to include a variety ofsubstances that
had been discovered to combat infection and
its adverse effects. Among these substances
were antitoxins, agglutinins, and preciptins.
All ofthese substances or "bodies" seemed to
be "anti" something, so they were called,
simply and collectively, "antibodies." Therefore, the original idea was not thatthese substances were "against the body" but rather
thatthey were "bodies" (for want of a better
term) "against" something else. The term in
English is a loan-translation of the German
Antikorper. Only later was "antigen" contrived
as a name forwhatever might induce the formation or activity of these antibodies. Today,
"antibody" is restricted to the immunoglobulins ofthe E-type that are elaborated by immunoreactive lymphocytes ofthe B-type.
antidote is almost direct borrowing of the
Greek antidotos, which means "an exchange"
and comes from a combination of anti-,
"against," + dotos, "what is given." An antidote is administered "against," or in opposition to, a poison.
antigenis a word contrived to name a substance
that induces an immune reaction. As noted
above, the word “antibody" came first as a collective term for a variety of newly discovered
substances that seemed to have a combative
or nullifying effect in infection and its concomitants. "Antigen" was devised as a name
for whatever stimulated or activated antibodies. The word "antigen" was suggested by the
Greek anti-, "against,” + gennan, "to produce."
The sense, of course, is not that antigens are
"against production." Quite the opposite:
antigens are conceived to produce or generate
whatever is "anti." Ifthis sounds confusing, it
may be because immunologists seldom are as
devoted to semantics as to science. But then,
could a semanticist have done any better?
antihelix is the name given to the prominent
ridge at the meatus of the outer ear. This is
situated opposite the twisted part ofthe outer
ear and accounts for the name, being derived
from the Greek anti-, "opposite," + helix, "that
which is twisted."
antipyretic is derived from the Greek anti-,
"against," + pyretos, "fever," and refersto whatever has the effect of reducing orsuppressing
fever. The root word is the Greek pyr, "fire."
antisepsis was contrived from a combination
of the Greek anti-, “against,” + sepsis, "putrefaction." Today we think of antisepsis as any
17
antitoxin apheresis
treatment that disables a potentially pathogenic substance or organism. But the word
"antisepsis" actually antedates the promulgation of the germ theory of disease. It was
first used in the early 18th century to refer to
elimination of anything thought to be putrefactive as a means of combating a plague.
Joseph Lister (1827-1912), the celebrated
English surgeon, promoted the modem use of
antisepsis as a means ofreducing infection in
wounds. His surname was taken as the basis
for the trade name of a popular mouthwash
that is advertised to "kill germs on contact."
He is also memorialized in the naming ofthe
genus Listeria. (see asepsis)
antitoxin (see toxin)
antrum is a Latin word that means "cave or
cavity." Its Greek counterpart is antron, also
"a cave." In anatomy, "antrum" can refer to
any cavity or chamber. The maxillary sinus
often is called the antrum, and the lower portion of the stomach is referred to as the gastric or prepyloric antrum,
anuria is complete suppression of urinary excretion by the kidneys, (see urine)
anus is the nether opening of the alimentary
canal through which feces are expelled. The
Latin anus meant the same thing to the
Romans. It also meant "ring," in the sense of
encirclement. This would seem appropriate
inasmuch as the anus encircles the outlet of
the bowel.
anxiety is an ancient complaint for which the
Romans had almost the same word in the
Latin anxietas, "trouble, worry."
anxiolytic (see sedative; also tranquilizer)
aorta is almost a direct borrowing ofthe Greek
aorte, the name by which Aristotle referred to
the main arterial channel issuing from the
heart. But where did the Greeks get aorte?
Authorities are divided in their explanations.
The source could have been the Greek verbs
aeirein, "to lift," or aortemai, "to suspend."
Then, there is a Greek noun aorterthat means
"a strap over the shoulder to hang anything
on." When viewing the opened chest of a cadaver it is easy to see how the aorta might
look like a curved strap from which hang the
heart, the kidneys, and the abdominal viscera. The Greeks, lacking knowledge of circulating blood and believing that arteries
contained air, may have likened the aorta to
a sturdy strap.
APACHE is the acronym for a scheme by which
the status of a critically ill patient can be
evaluated, usually in the milieu of an intensive care unit. The initials stand for Acute
Physiology And Chronic Health Evaluation,
aperture comes from the Latin apertus, "uncovered, exposed," the past participle of aperire,
"to reveal, to open." An aperture, then, is an
opening through which something can be seen
or made evident. The piriform ("pear-shaped")
aperture is the opening in the anterior skull
through which the nasal passage can be observed. In years past, what we now call laxatives were known even more delicately as
aperients, the allusion being obvious,
apex is a direct borrowing ofthe Latin word and
means topmost point of anything. It is said
to have originally referred to the peak of a
high priest's cap. The plural is apices. Thus
we refer to the apex of one lung and to the
apices of both lungs.
APGAR is an acronym with a triple meaning.
First, it represents a numerical expression, on
a scale of 1 to 10, of the condition of a newborn infant based on assessment of heart
rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, reflex
irritability, and skin color, taking into consideration observation of Adaptability, Partnership, Growth, Affection, and Resolve. Second,
the scheme has been adopted as the American Pediatric Gross Assessment Record. Third,
it is the actual name of its originator, Virginia Apgar, an American anesthesiologist
who first published the concept (Res Anesth
Analg. 1953;32:260).
aphagia (see dysphagia)
aphakia (see lens)
aphasia connects the Greek a-, "without," +
phasis, "speech," and is used to describe a
defect or loss of expression or comprehension
of language. It can be a symptom of various
destructive brain lesions. "Aphasia" is not to
be confused with "aphagia," words pronounced nearly the same.
-apheresis is a combining suffix derived from
the Greek aphairesis, "a taking away," which
in turn contains elements of apo-, "away," +
hairein, "to take." In linguistics, apheresis (or
aphaeresis) occurs when a shortsyllable has
18
aphonia apoptosis
been deleted from a word, as in the use of
"most" when "almost" is meant. In medicine,
the form indicates "a taking away" of whatever precedes the suffix, and its most familiar
use is in plasmapheresis, the process whereby the plasma component of blood is separated from erythrocytes and other formed
elements by centrifugation. Plasmapheresis
can be employed to prepare freshly frozen
plasma and "packed red blood cells" for
transfusion or to remove wanted or unwanted
substances in plasma while preserving the
cellular content of blood to be returned to the
donor.
aphonia links the Greek a-, "without," + phone,
"voice," to mean an inability to speak. It can
refer to a loss ofthe voice from any cause, as
minor as laryngitis or as grave as stroke.
aphrodisiac describes an agent alleged to enhance libido. Aphrodite, the ancient Greek
goddess of beauty and sexual love, is said to
have sprung from the foam of the sea (Greek
aphros, "foam"), perhaps as a result of Zeus'
dalliance with Dione, one of the female
Titans. Aphrodite's counterpart in Roman
mythology is Venus, from whose name we
get venereal, meaning whatever pertains to
the act of love. Whatever is purported to
quell the baser passions (e.g., saltpeter) is an
anaphrodisiac.
aphthous describes certain ulcers in a mucous
membrane, usually in the mouth but also in
the lining of other hollow viscera. The Greek
aphthai ("spotted eruption") was used as a
name for thrush, an exudative inflammation
of the oral mucosa. Aphthai is related to the
Greek verb aptein, which could mean both "to
cling" (as does an exudate) and "to kindle or
set aflame," a characteristic of inflammation. The Greeks had a great fear of aphthai
because for them the term also included
diphtheria, which they recognized as often
fatal to children.
apnea means a suspension of breathing, either
voluntary, as in "holding one's breath," or
involuntarily, as during sleep or coma. This
is just what apnoia meant to the Greeks, who
derived their word from a-, "not," + pnein,
"to breathe."
apo- is a combining form taken directly from
the Greek preposition meaning "away from,
far from, apart from, derived from," and is
the prefix to a host of Greek words, many of
which we have converted to English, e.g.,
apocryphal, apogee, apology, apostasy, apostle,
and apostrophe. Medical terminology is rich
in apo- words, a sampling of which follows,
apocrine describes a type of glandularsecretion
in which the apical or free end of a secreting
cell is cast off along with the substance being
secreted, e.g., the product of the axillary
sweat glands. The term links apo- + the Greek
krinesthi, "to be secreted."
aponeurosis is a thin, wide tendon from which
dense connective tissue is broadly splayed
into the muscle for which it serves as an attachment. This being so, why does the name
sound as if it had something to do with
nerves? The answer is thatthe ancient Greeks
were unable distinguish tendons and nerves.
Dense, white strands looked all the same to
them and were called by the collective term
neuros. "Aponeurosis" combines apo-, "from,"
- neuros, in this case "a tendon."
apophysis as a Greek word means "an offshoot" and was derived by combining apowith phthysis, "growth." "Apophysis" now
means a projection from a bone otherthan an
epiphysis (which has a different meaning),
apoplexy is a near borrowing of the Greek
apoplexia, which meant "a seizure" as a result
of being "struck down." The word combines
apo- + plexe, "a stroke." The common belief
was that anyone seized by sudden disability
was "struck down" by the gods. This idea persists in our use ofthe word "stroke" in reference to the consequence of an abrupt, severe,
cerebrovascular disturbance. Curious, too, is
that we habitually refer to "cerebrovascular
accidents," as if these tragic events were the
result of a "falling out" among the heavenly
bodies that guide our courses. Incidentally,
by knowing the origin and meaning of
"apoplexy" one can avoid the fatuous redundancy ofspeaking of an apoplectic stroke or
a stroke of apoplexy.
apoptosis is a neologism that has been recently
gaining currency in pathophysiological circles. The term refers to the dissolution of
tissue cells in their natural life cycle, in contrastto premature necrosis (q.v.) unnaturally
induced. The process of apoptosis involves
19
apothecary aqueduct
the fragmentation of cellular components
into membrane-bound particles that are then
eliminated by phagocytosis or otherwise carried off. The term combines apo- + ptosis, "a
falling." Incidentally, the word is properly
pronounced “a-po-ptosis," not “a-pop-tosis."
In classical Greek, "p" before a consonant is
a barely audible labial whisper.
apothecary in its original meaning comes
closer than one might guess to the modern
American drugstore with its shelves displaying everything from animal crackers to zippers. It is a near borrowing of the Greek
apotheke, "a storehouse,” which is a composite of apo-, "away," + theke, "a case or cover,”
related to tithenai, "to put." It was not until
the 17th century that England's "chemists"
(as the British call druggists) and grocers formally agreed that henceforth apothecaries
would stock only drugs, while grocers would
limit their trade to foodstuffs. Now, it would
seem we have come full circle. The shelves
of modern supermarkets are laden with
over-the-counter medicaments, while drugstores offer almost everything under the sun.
By a strange quirk, an apothecary shop
today is one that deals exclusively in prescription drugs, eschewing even a soda fountain. The apothecary scale is a system of
measure in which an ounce is equivalent to
480 grains and a pound contains 12 ounces.
In the avoirdupois scale, more commonly
used, a pound consists of 16 ounces. The
French avoir du pois means "goods sold by
weight."
appall is not strictly a medical term, but it has
a kind of physiologic origin. It comes from
the Latin a-, ad-, "toward," + pallere, "to turn
pale." Related is our word "pallor," a deficiency of color, usually in the face, that can
be an adrenergic reaction wherein cutaneous
arterioles are constricted, thus causing the
skin to blanche. Anything that appalls may
be so dismaying as to make one turn pale.
apparatus comes from the Latin apparare, "to
prepare," a linkage of a-, "to," + paratus,
"ready." This brings to mind the motto of the
U.S. Coast Guard, Semper paratus, "Always
ready." From its derivation, then, "apparatus"
carries the implication ofsome arrangement
or device "made ready" or prepared for a
given purpose. A meaningless device could
not properly be called an apparatus.
appendix (see vermis)
appetite is an almost direct borrowing of the
Latin appetitio, "grasping or craving," which,
in turn, combines ad- (as ap-), "toward," + petitus, "desire," the past participle of petere, "to
seek, attack, or fall upon"). Petulant, impetuous, impetus, complete, and repeat are all
similarly derived. (However, the English noun
"pet" and the verb "to pet" are not related;
their origin is obscure.) Appetite can be a
craving for almost anything, though usually
we think of appetite in terms of a hearty
desire for nourishment. But there are other
appetites to serve, some leading to misbehavior. The Due de la Rochefoucauld (1613-1680)
wrote that what a man of advancing age
claims as a gain in virtue is more likely to be
only a loss of appetite. Appestat is a cleverly
contrived (though etymologically suspect)
term for the postulated hypothalamic center
that governs desire for food.
aqua is the Latin word for water. Some have said
that aqua is related to the Latin aequa, meaning "smooth or level," the idea being thatthe
surface of water in a bucket or a pond, when
not unduly disturbed, is level. But mostscholars attribute aqua to the postulated IndoEuropean form akwa. Surely the earliest
speaking man had a word for water. (The
English "water," incidentally, comes from the
Old English waeter, presumed to have been
derived from the Indo-European form awer,
"wet, or to flow.") Medieval alchemists combined aqua with all sorts ofromantic terms to
describe various liquids: aqua fortis ("strong
water") was nitric acid; aqua regis ("royal
water") was a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric adds, so called because it alone could
dissolve gold (which would seem a royally extravagant feat); aqua vitae ("water of life")
became a collective term for ardent spiritous
liquors. This shows that prevailing attitudes
haven't really changed through the years. The
Celtic uisge-beatha became "whiskey," and
the Slavic voda ("water") became "vodka."
Scandinavians hardly bothered to change the
Latin when they named akvavit.
aqueduct is borrowed from the Latin aquaeductus, which, in turn, combines aqua, "water," +
20
arabinose argon
ductus, "a conduit" (from the verb ducere, "to
lead"). In anatomy, the name "aqueduct" is
given to several channels through various
structures, usually for the passage of fluid. An
example is the aqueduct of Sylvius that connects the third and fourth ventricles of the
brain and serves as a passage for cerebrospinal fluid. Jacobus Sylvius (1478-1555),
who before Latinizing his name was plain
Jacque Dubois, was a French anatomist and
preceptor of Vesalius. Note that despite its relation to aqua, "aqueduct" in English contains an "e" and not a second "a." The
classical spelling would be "aquaeduct," but
usage has worn away the second “a."
arabinose (see ribose)
arachidonic is the name of an unsaturated
fatty acid that has come into recent prominence as the natural precursor of the ubiquitous prostaglandins, substances now
recognized to exhibit important physiologic
roles, as well as pharmacologic properties.
Arachidic acid, a saturated fatty acid, was
first isolated from peanut oil and named
from the Latin arachis, "peanut." Arachidonic acid, the fatty acid with four double
bonds, was thus named to indicate a relation,
arachnodactyly (see -dactyl-)
arachnoid comes from the Greek arachne,
"spider," + eidos, "like," and describes whatever might resemble or relate to a spider. The
patient with advanced cirrhosis can have a
large belly swollen by ascites and spindly
arms and legs shrunken by wasting of the
flesh. Such a patient is said to have an
"arachnoid" habitus. Also, the arachnoid
membrane is a delicate, web-like covering of
the brain and spinal cord. The Greek word is
associated with Arachne, a mythological
Lydian maiden who was so adept at weaving
that she presumed to challenge the goddess
Athene to a contest of skill. Athene tried to
warn her of the consequence of her brashness, but Arachne would not yield. The contest proceeded, and both the maiden and the
goddess were incredibly deft in their weaving.
From this point there are two, slightly different versions of the story. In one, Arachne finally recognizes her folly and is so stricken
with remorse that she hangs herself; Athene
brings her to life, but as a spider. In the other
version, Athene feels threatened and uses her
supernatural power to imbue Arachne with
such guilt that the maiden hangs herself,
whereupon Athene turns Arachne into a
spider hanging forevermore from its web, a
lasting warning to mortals who might fall
into Arachne's error of challenging the gods.
arcus is the Latin word for "bow," and from it
came our words "arch" and "archery."
"Arcuate" in anatomy describes whatever is
bow-shaped. Arcus senilis is a bow-shaped
or circular cloudy opacity atthe periphery of
the cornea, often seen in the eyes of elderly
persons.
areola is the diminutive of the Latin area, "an
open space, courtyard, or park." An areola,
then, is "a little space." In the skin, an areola
is usually a small area set apart by being of
different color or texture, particularly around
a central point. The areola surrounding the
nipple orthe zone of erythema around a pustule qualifies by this definition. Areolar tissue
was so named because of the little spaces between the fibers of loose connective tissue.
argentum is the Latin word forsilver, related to
the Greek argyros, "silver," and argos, "white
or shining." With a bit of license, these words
were abbreviated as the chemical symbol
"Ag." The Greek and Latin terms may have
originated in the Sanskrit root radj, "to
shine." Argyria and argyrosis are terms for
the condition wherein silver salts are deposited in tissues of the body. This can be evident as a peculiar, slate-gray cast of the skin
and as a dark line of silver pigment at the
gingival margin. Years ago this was seen in
patients who had consumed large quantities
of "Argyrol," a proprietary silver-protein
medicament prescribed for sore throats and
nervous disorders. An eccentric Philadelphian, Albert C. Barnes, amassed a fortune
from the sale of this concoction, thereby acquiring a world-renowned collection of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings
that for many years was jealously guarded
from public view in his own private museum.
argon is the name of an almost inert gaseous
element that, among other uses, has been
adapted to devices producing laser beams
that lately have been applied to medical purposes. Before this usefulness was discovered,
21
argyria artery
the name "argon" was contrived from the a-,
"not," + Greek ergon, “work." Being inert,
argon was thoughtto do no work,
argyria (see argentum)
arm has its analogues in Old Frisian and other
Teutonic languages. The Old Norse armr referred to that portion of the upper extremity
between the shoulder and the elbow, probably more specifically to the shoulder. The
Aryan form ar meant "to fit or join." The
Latin armus refers to the shoulder and upper
arm. But the word usually used by the
Romans was bracchium, from which we take
the anatomic adjective brachial, “of the
arm," as in the brachial plexus (of nerves)
and the brachial artery and vein. This is
not to be confused with the prefix brachy-,
derived from the Greek brachys, "short." Incidentally, during World War II enlisted men
were subjected to periodic examination of
their genitals supposedly to detect signs of
venereal disease. These indignities were
known as "short arm inspections."
armamentarium is a direct borrowing of the
Latin word meaning “arsenal or armory"
and, thus, a collection of weapons. In medicine, a "therapeutic armamentarium" refers
to an assortment of remedies available to
combat disease or injury,
arrheno- is a combining form taken from the
Greek arrhen, "male." An arrhenoblastoma
is a neoplasm arising in the stroma of an
ovary, which in some cases produces a hormonal masculinizing effect in the host,
ars is dted here because itintroducesthe maxim
Ars longa, vita brevis, often quoted by worldlywise professors to weary students. While the
quotation is usually given in Latin, the maxim
is attributed to Hippocrates, the famous Greek
physician of the 5th century B.C. A literal
translation is: "The art is long; life is short."
John H. Dirckx in his book The Language of
Medicine (New York: Praeger Publishers, 2nd
edition, 1983) offers what he believes to be a
translation more faithful to the spirit of the
original: "The craft of healing is so complex
that you will scarcely master it in a lifetime."
Often one is reminded, "Medicine is both an
art and a science." Usually this is taken to
mean that the profession of medicine combines an aesthetic and a practical sense. The
Latin ars, artis, cognate with the Greek techne,
means "a trade, handicraft" (whence "artisan"), whereas the Latin scientia implies
"knowledge" in the cognitive sense. Dirckx
goes on to point out that though the characterization of medicine as both an art and a
science conveys nearly the same meaning
now as many years ago, the two key words
have virtually exchanged meanings,
arse is a time-honored, if somewhat archaic,
word descended from the Teutonic and meaning "the fundament, posterior, or rump" of
any animal, including man. Commonly the
word is corrupted, through ignorance, by
deleting the "r" and "e," then adding an
extra "s." This results in a wholly unrelated
word that properly designates the long-eared,
sure-footed, patient, domesticated mammal
Equus asinus. To the Romans, the Latin asinus
meant both "a donkey" and "a fool," which
seems a shameful degradation ofthe faithful
beast of burden. The Greek word for donkey
was onos, and the Latin onus means "burden."
To avoid mistaking "ass" for "arse," remember
the limerick:
There once was a maid from Madras
Who had a magnificent ass.
Not rounded and pink,
As you probably think—
It was gray, had long ears, and ate grass.
arsenic comes through the Old French from the
Latin arsenicum (arrenicum) and the Greek arsenikon (arrenikon), "a yellow ointment."
Because ointments containing arsenic were
thought to be "strong," some writers relate
the term to the Greek adjective arrenikos,
"masculine or male." Another connection
may be with the Persian zamika, wherein zar
means "gold."
artemisinin (see cinchona)
arteriosclerosis is a word introduced by
Johann Lobstein (1777-1835), a Strasbourg
surgeon, in 1833. It combines the Greek
arteria, "vessel," + skleros, "hard," + -osis, "a
condition," thus "a hardening ofthe arteries."
artery has been handed down through the ages
as a word for an efferent vessel leading from
the heart, but it all began with a misconception. The term is derived from the Greek
arteria, which, in turn, came from aer-, "air,"
- terein, "to contain," thus "an air duct." The
22
arthritis ascorbic acid
ancients used arteria to refer to the windpipe,
but because the efferent vessels from the
heart usually were empty when cadavers
were dissected, the term arteria was applied to
these, too. Phlebos, from phled, "I flow," was
applied to veins and sometimes to blood vessels generally. Although it soon became apparent, even to the ancients, that efferent
vessels carried blood, the term stuck as arteria
leiai, "smooth artery," in distinction to arteria
tracheia, "rough artery," which we know
simply as the trachea.
arthritis comes from the Greek arthros, "a
joint," with the suffix denoting inflammation. Arthralgia (+ the Greek algos, "pain")
refers to sore joints. Arthrodesis (+ the
Greek desmeo, "I bind") means a procedure
designed to immobilize or stiffen a joint.
Arthroplasty (+ the Greek plassein, "to form
or to fashion") means to reconstruct a joint.
Remarkably, the first report of an operative
attempt to fashion an artifical joint was
recorded in 1826 by John Rhea Barton (1794-
1871), an American surgeon (NAmer Med Surg
/. 3:279). Only recently, with the development
of new materials and innovative techniques,
has arthroplasty become widely applied,
articulation refers to the joining or juncture or
two structures, usually bones, and comes
from the Latin articulus, “a joint." This, in
turn, is a diminutive ofthe Latin artus, meaning "fitted, close, or narrow." Any jointed
structure is "articulated." When applied to
the act of speech, "to articulate" means to
properly join the tongue, palate, teeth, and
lips so as to produce intelligible sound,
artificial describes what is made or manufactured as opposed to that which occurs naturally. The term is from the Latin ars, artis,
"craft" + factus, "made." Thus, an artifact
(also spelled artefact) in medicine, as pertains generally, is anything produced or
caused to occur by otherthan natural means,
arytenoid is the descriptive name given to the
two opposing cartilages of the larynx. Their
pyramidal shape suggests a ladle or cup,
whence their name from the Greek arytaina,
"a pitcher,” + eidos, "like."
asbestosis denotes a condition caused by exposure to asbestos. Presently, asbestos is
recognized as a carcinogen giving rise to
mesothelioma in pleural and peritoneal surfaces. The mineral substance got its name
from a-, "not," + the Greek sbennumi, "to
quench," i.e., unquenchable. The name is said
to have been originally that of a mythical
substance which, once ignited, could not be
extinguished. In some strange way the reference was reversed when the name was given to
a substance that would not bum. In a manner
of speaking, one might suppose that whatever could not burn would also be unquenchable. In any event, asbestos was known as a
mineral fiber to the ancients who used it as
wicks for lamps and as cremation cloths.
ascaris is a direct borrowing of the Greek
askaris, the name given to intestinal worms.
The origin ofthisterm is obscure, butit might
relate to the Greek asketos, "fidgety, irrepressible," which would aptly describe a person
sorely affected by intestinal worms. The
common nematode or roundworm was
named Ascaris lumbricoides by Linnaeus. This
would seem a redundantinasmuch as lumbricus is the Latin word for "worm," often used
by the Romans also as a term of reproach.
ascites comes from the Greek askos, "a pouch or
sack, "such as that made ofleather and used
to carry oil, wine, or water. That the fluidfilled abdomen was thought to resemble a
wine sack is ironic in that we now recognize
alcoholic liver disease as the commonest
cause of ascites.
ascorbic acid (also known as vitamin C) is a
sovereign remedy for scurvy, as its name implies, being from the Latin a-, "against," +
scorbutus, "scurvy" (see scorbutus). The disease was known to the ancients, but not its
cause or cure. A dietary relationship had long
been suspected. Jacques Cartier, the 16th-century French explorer ofNorth America, is said
to have learned from the Indians of Canada
how to cure scurvy by making a decoction of
spruce needles. Butit remained for James Lind
(1716-1794), a surgeon in the Royal Navy, to
prove the ascorbutic properties of certain
foods. In 1747, while serving aboard HMS
Salisbury, Lind gave sailors stricken with scurvy
either cider, vinegar, elixir ofvitriol (a sulfate),
seawater, nutmeg, various cathartics, oranges,
or lemons. Evidently he wished to leave no
potentially ascorbutic stone unturned. After
23
-ase asterixis
six days, those given citrus fruits miraculously recovered; the others languished. Lind
had proved the presence of a potent antiscurvy principle in citrus fruits, although the
concept of vitamin substances lay far in the
future. This probably was the first "controlled" clinical trial in medical history even
though not "double-blinded" or strictly "randomized." (see hip)
-ase is a suffix used to designate an enzyme. It
is a contraction of diastase, a neologism
contrived as a name for the first recognized
enzyme. This happened to be a substance obtained from malt that was found capable of
hydrolyzing starch. The word "diastase" appears to have been coined about 1833 and
was borrowed from the Greek diastasis, "a
separation." This, in turn, is a compound of
dia-, "through or apart," + histanai, "to stand."
Thus, the substance found to make the components of starch "stand apart" was called
"diastase," and this was later recognized to
be an enzyme (a word coined later). With the
discovery of a multitude ofsubstances exerting such splitting or "stand apart" activity,
"-ase" was conceived as being a handy suffix
to designate an enzymatic effect,
asepsis comes from the a-, "without," + the
Greek sepsis, "putrefaction." Thus, asepsis
pertains when no putrefying agent, such as
bacteria, is present. The origin ofthe term denotes the distinction between asepsis and antisepsis, the latter implying that putrefaction
is counteracted,
asfetida (see amulet)
Asklepios (see Aesculapius)
Aspergillis is a genus of fungi whose structure
was thought to resemble an aspergillum, the
Latin name for a small brush used by priests
to sprinkle holy water. This, in turn, comes
from the Latin verb aspergere, "to spray."
asphyxia has become a somewhat misplaced
term. The word comprises a-, "without," + the
Greek sphyxis, "pulse," and should mean
"pulseless." Originally, the term was applied
by the ancients to any condition marked by a
diminished or absent arterial pulse, signifying a cessation of the heartbeat. Commonly,
in such instances, breathing also had ceased,
and the term came to be associated mainly
with an absence ofrespiration. In actual fact,
when breathing has been impeded, the heart
continues to beat, and a pulse persists for a
remarkably long time. Nevertheless, the use
of the term "asphyxia" to mean "suspended
animation from suffocation" has persisted
much longer.
aspirate is a term that, in medical parlance, has
been turned around from its original meaning. The Latin aspirare means "to breathe or
blow upon" (from a-, ad-, "toward," + spirare,
"to breathe"). An aspirate, when the word is
used as a noun in phonetics, is the slightly
coughed "h" sound and thus preserves the
original sense. But in medicine, "aspirate" is
used as a verb with two meanings: to remove
gas or fluid by suction, and to inhale foreign
substances into the respiratory passages. To
suck or to inhale are the opposite of "to blow
toward," but at least we seem to know what
we mean when we talk of "aspirating" joint
fluid or when we say a patient "aspirated"
gastric contents.
aspirin was originally a trademark that has
passed into the common language. "Aspirin,"
as a trademark requiring a capital "A," was
the name given by the Bayer company of
Germany to its preparation of acetylsalicylic
acid (see salicylate). Salicylic acid was first
extracted from the plant Spiraea ulmaria, and
the principal component of this extract was
known by the German term spiroylige Sauer,
later shortened to Spirsauer. An "A," to designate "acetyl," was added to "spir," with "-in"
as a suffix, and thus "Aspirin" was contrived.
astereognosis is the loss of ability to identify
familiar objects by feeling their shape. A patient so afflicted, for example, cannot recognize, with his eyes closed, a key thatis placed
in his hand. The term links a-, “without," +
the Greek stereos, "solid, three dimensional,"
- gnosis, "knowledge, recognition."
asterixis describes the clonic movements, especially of the hands, by patients afflicted with
various encephalopathies, but particularly
that associated with advanced liver disease.
The term links a-, "without," + the Greek sterixis, "a fixed position." The patient with
portal-systemic encephalopathy cannot hold
his hands in a fixed position. This alternating motion ofthe hands sometimes is called
"liver flap."
24
asthenia atlas
asthenia means "weak" and is derived from a-,
"without, lacking," + the Greek sthenos,
“strength." The asthenic habitus is that ofthe
thin, frail person. Rather than being content
with just "sthenic,” we describe the husky,
muscular person as hypersthenic,
asthma is a direct borrowing of the Greek word
for "gasping or panting." Asthma was defined as "sonorous wheezing" by Celsus in
the 1st century A.D.
astigmatism combines a-, "without," + the
Greek stigma, "a point," hence, "no point."
In ophthalmology this means "no point of
convergence" as a cause of impaired vision.
The condition was recognized in the early
19th century and soon after was shown to
be corrected by the use ofslightly cylindrical
lenses. It seems a pity the word is never
otherwise used. It would be apt to put down
an opponent by saying, "Your argument is
astigmatic!"
astragulus (see talus)
astringentis the property of a substance, when
applied to a moist or weeping surface, to dry
up a fluid discharge. An example is the use
of aluminum chloride in antiperspirants or
deodorants. The source of the term is the
Latin verb astringere, “to tighten, bind, or
compress."
astrocyte is from the Greek aster, "star," + kytos,
"a cell," and is the name given to a starshaped cell found in the supporting tissues of
the central nervous system. An astrocytoma (+ Greek -oma, "swelling") is a neoplasm arising from these cells,
asylum is a direct borrowing ofthe Latin word
for “refuge or sanctuary." This, in turn, came
from the Greek asylon, "refuge," which came
from a combination of a-, "without," + syle,
"violence or right of seizure." In ancient
Greece certain temples or sacred places were
accorded the privilege of protecting from
seizure slaves or persons accused of criminal
acts. From this, the meaning of "asylum" was
extended to any place that offered refuge for
persons needing protection or shelter. In
years past, in our own country, reference
commonly was made to "an orphan asylum"
or to "an insane asylum."
atavism refers to "the apparent inheritance
of a characteristic from remote rather than
immediate ancestors due to a chance recombination of genes or to unusual environmental conditions favorable to their expression"
(Dorland's). The word is derived from the
Latin at-, "beyond," + avus, "grandfather."
Hence, an atavistic expression cannot be
blamed on Grandfather, but relates to someone farther up on the family tree.
ataxia comes from a-, "without," + the Greek
taxis, "order or arrangement." The term refers
to a lack of motor coordination, particularly
that disturbing the gait, a sign of neurologic
disorder.
atelectasis links a-, "without," + the Greek
teios, "complete," + ectasis, "extension or expansion." The term usually is applied to the
lungs and refers either to a failure of expansion at birth or to a collapse of previously expanded lung tissue.
atheroma is from the Greek athere, "gruel or
porridge," + -oma, "a rising," thereby having
the sense of swelling with the consistency of
mush. In ancient times the term was used to
describe any mushy swelling, such as a sebacious cyst. Now it refers to the fatty excrescences that accumulate in the endothelium
of arteries.
athetosis is a condition marked by involuntary, writhing movements, especially of the
hands and arms. Such a sign is seen in patients with various forms of motor disorder
due to disturbance in the central nervous
system (see chorea). The Greek athetos
means "lacking a fixed position" and represents a combinations of a-, "without," +
tithenai, "to bring into position." This last
part suggests our word "tether," which comes
from the Old Norse tjddr but probably shares
a common Indo-European root with the
Greek word.
athlete's foot is a euphemism for ringworm infection ofthe feet coined in 1928 by an enterprising advertising copywriter touting the
purported anti-fungal property of a proprietary product called "Absorbine Jr."
atlas is the name of the first cervical vertebra
and also is used to designate a collection of
pictorial illustrations. What is the connection? The original Atlas was the name of one
of the mythical Titans, descendents of the
primordial deities. After a falling out with
25
atom aura
Perseus, son of Zeus, Atlas was turned into
stone and condemned to carry on his shoulders the weight of the earth and its heavens.
A depiction ofAtlas bearing the globe became
a common adornment of maps. Soon a compilation of maps and other illustrations
became known as an "atlas." Meanwhile, the
bone bearing the globe of the head, i.e., the
uppermost cervical vertebra, also came to be
known as the atlas.
atom is from the Greek atomos, meaning "uncut
or indivisible," being derived from a-, "not,"
- temnein, "to cut." The idea that all matter is
composed of particles was accepted by ancient
philosophers. The ultimate particle that could
not be further divided or cut was the atomos.
Only in relatively recent times did it become
apparentthat even the atom was made up of
constituent parts, the nature ofwhich remains
an active field ofinvestigation.
atony (see tonus)
atopy is a near borrowing of the Greek atopos,
"out of place." This, in turn is a combination
of a- as a negative + topos "place." An atopic
reaction, such as an allergic dermatitis is
"out of place" in the sense of being unusual
or affecting only a minority of the population. The basis for atopy is now known to be a
peculiar immunopathy, inherent or acquired.
atresia is derived from a-, "without," + the
Greek tresis, "a hole." Thus, atresia is a condition wherein there is "no hole," i.e., there
should be an opening but there is not. The
term was first used in the 17th century. By
"atresia" we now refer to a failure of a structure to become hollow or tubular, as in a congenital defect, or to the collapse of a structure
once hollow. Atresia, either congenital or acquired, can result, for example, in obstruction of biliary ducts.
atrium was the Latin word for the open area in
the center ofa classic Roman house. The same
word is used in anatomy to describe the two
smaller chambers ofthe heart, which lead into
the larger ventricles. The atria (Latin neuter
plural) ofthe heart also have been called auricles, from the Latin auricula, "little ear,"
presumably because they resembled the
floppy ears of a dog. Another quaint name
for the inner recesses ofthe heartis "cockles,”
likening them to the bivalve mollusks ofthe
family Cardiiae. This name customarily is
used in a figurative sense for one’s innermost
feelings, as when one says, "It warms the
cockles of my heart."
atrophy is a close approximation of the Greek
atrophia, "a want or lack of nourishment,"
which links a-, "without," + trophe, "nourishment." The modern medical use is to designate the occurrence or consequence of
depletion in any organ or tissue. Moreover,
the sense of the term has been broadened to
include causes other than nutritional deficiency, as when we speak of muscular atrophy due to disuse.
atropine is named after Atropos, one ofthe trio
of Fates, all daughters of Themis who served
as counsel to Zeus. According to Greek
mythology, these goddesses controlled the
destiny of men and women. Of the three,
Atropos made the final and immutable decision. This explains the derivation of her
name from a-, "no," + the Greek tropos,
"turning [back]." Atropos usually was depicted as holding shears with which she cut
the threads that all human lives hang by.
The alkaloid atropine was obtained from a
genus of plants well known to be poisonous
(see belladonna). The drug in lethal doses
also could sever the thread of life, and so it
was named "atropine."
attenuate comes from the Latin verb attenuare,
"to weaken or diminish." The double "t" is
important because it indicates an additive
rather than a negative prefix. The Latin verb
was derived from ad-, "toward," + the adjective tenuis, "being thin, delicate, or puny." An
attenuated virus is one made weak or nonvirulent by various means.
auditory is from the Latin audire, "to hear or
give attention to." This, in turn, is derived
from the postulated Indo-European form
awei, "to become aware or to notice." The
same form, through Anglo-French, gives the
bailiff's cry "Oyez! Oyez!" ("Hear ye! Hear
ye!") as he calls for attention in the courtroom. The auditory or eighth cranial nerve is
the pathway by which the sense ofsound is
conveyed from the ear to the brain.
aura is the Latin word meaning "a breeze, a
wind, or an atmosphere." This, in turn, is related to the Greek aer, "breath." Now the word
26
auricle average
is used both in the sense of a premonitory
sign (as a quickening breeze might signal a
change in weather, or a visual sensation
might herald an epileptic seizure) and in the
sense of an emanation (as a halo).
auricle is from the Latin auricula, the diminutive of auris, "the ear." The external portion
of the ear or pinna was given this name because it is only a small part of the ear, the
main structure being inside the head.
"Auricle" also is used as a name for the
floppy appendage of the cardiac atrium, presumably because it looks like a little ear.
auscultation comes from the Latin auscultare,
"to listen keenly." The Latin word also carried
the connotation of obedience to what was
heard. Therefore, when we perform auscultation in the course of physical examination,
we are obliged to both listen intently and
heed what we hear.
aut-, auto- is a combining form taken from the
Greek autos, "self." Hence, autism, typically
observed in children, is an aberrant self-absorption in dreams or delusions to the exclusion of reality, i.e., all that is not "self." The
term (not the combining form) was coined in
1943 by Leo Kinner (1894-1981), an American
child psychologist.
autochthonous comes from the Greek autochthon, "of the land itself," which is derived
from auto-, "self," + chthon, "the earth." Thus,
to the Greeks an autochthon was an aboriginal inhabitant. In pathology, whatever is autochthonous is found in that part of the body
where it originates; for example, an autochthonous neoplasm.
autoclave is a hybrid word contrived from the
Greek auto-, "self," + the Latin clavis, "key."
The original device was a pressure cooker so
constructed that the generated steam tightened the lid. In other words, an autoclave is
"self-locking." The term now is used for the
chamber in which instruments are sterilized
by heat.
autocrine (see paracrine)
autogenous links auto-, "self," + the Greek
gennan, "to produce." The term, then, means
"self-produced." An autogenous vaccine is
produced by using bacteria obtained from
the patient for whom the vaccine is being
specifically prepared.
autoimmunity is arguably a Misnomer, linking as it does auto-, "self," + the Latin immunitas, "exemption, protection against." In
this sense, one might think the term means
protection against oneself. Indeed, this is
true, in that one's own inherent immune
system does not normally react adversely to
what it recognizes as "self." However, in
biomedicine "autoimmunity" is taken to
mean the opposite, i.e., an immune reaction
mounted against one’s own tissue components. An autoimmune disease is one in
which one's own tissues are attacked by either
humoral or cell-mediated immune reaction.
The argument, if there is one, is specious.
Everyone knows what is meant by "autoimmunity," and we can let it go atthat.
autonomic is a combination of auto-, "self,” +
the Greek nomos, "law." Accordingly, whatever is autonomous is "a law unto itself."
When the concept of the autonomic nervous
system was introduced in the early 19th century, it was thought the system was self-controlled and not under the governance of
higher centers in the brain. This is no longer
held to be true.
autopsy is a misapplied term when used to refer
to a postmortem examination. The Greek
autopsia (auto-, "self," + opsis, "seeing") meant,
in fact, "seeing oneself." According to Professor Alexander Gode (JAMA. 1965;191:121),
for the Greeks this had an even more mystical meaning in the sense of "a contemplative
state preceding the vision of God.” Galen
used autopsia to mean "personal inspection.”
Possibly from this sense came the application
of "autopsy," in the early 19th century, to
designate a dissection of a corpse, especially
with a view to establishing the cause of
death. Nevertheless, "autopsy" has little but
currency to recommend its use and, if "postmortem examination" is too cumbersome,
necropsy (Greek nekros, "corpse") is the preferred term.
average is not strictly a medical term but often
is used in scientific computation to denote
the arithmetic mean. The word has a French
ring to it and, indeed, it came from the Old
French avarie. Curiously, avarie meant
"damage in shipping,” and can be traced
back to the Arabic awariyah, "damaged
27
avoirdupois azygos
goods," the Arabic awar meaning "blemish.”
"Average" was first recorded in English about
1500 as a maritime term referring to any expense incurred by loss from damage to goods
during transit. Such expense was usually
borne evenly among the various parties in
the venture. Hence, "average" conveyed the
idea of "divided equally."
avoirdupois (see apothecary)
avulsion comes from the Latin avulsus, the part
participle of avellere, "to pluck, to pull away,
to tear off." This, in turn, is a combination of
a, ab-, "away," + vellere, "to pull." An avulsed
nerve is one that is torn away from its supporting structures, as by injury,
axenic (see gnotobiotics)
axilla is borrowed directly from the Latin. To
the Romans, as to us, the axilla was the
armpit. Its more remote derivation is uncertain. The Latin ala meant both "wing" and
"the hollow under a wing or arm," taken
from an earlier form axla, of which axilla is
the diminutive.
axis is the name ofthe second cervical vertebra,
presumably because the uppermost cervical
vertebra (the atlas) rotates around the odontoid process ofthe one below it. The Latin axis
means "axle or pole" and is related to the
Greek axon, and can be traced to the IndoEuropean ag, "to move." Axial refers to whatever is located on, around, or in the direction
of an axis. Computed axial tomography
(better known as CAT or CT scan; the latter
term is preferred by most radiologists, leaving the former to veterinarians) produces
images of transverse sections oriented in
series along the long axis ofthe body.
axone is an almost direct borrowing of the
Greek axon, "axle." The conducting core of a
nerve fiber, encased in a tubular sheath, is
the axis ofthe structure.
azo- is a prefix denoting the presence of nitrogen.
Thus, azotemia is "nitrogen in the blood"
(see nitrogen). The prefix comes from azote,
the name given to a newly discovered element
by Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794), the
pioneering French chemist. The story is that
Lavoisier placed a lighted candle and a live
mouse in a sealed jar. When the candle was
extinguished, its flame having consumed all
the oxygen, the mouse, too, soon expired.
Lavoisier knew that gas remained in the jar
and observed that this gas was incapable of
supporting life. Thereupon he called the gas
azote, contriving the name from a-, "without," + the Greek zbe, "life." Lavoisier was a
little off the mark. The Greeks previously had
a word azotus, but it meant "ungirt." In this
instance, it appears that Lavoisier was caught
with his classical pants down.
Aztec two-step is one of a number of jocular
appellations given to the rigors of traveler's
diarrhea. Among others are Delhi belly,
Montezuma's revenge, and Teheran
trots.
azygos is the name given by Galen (131-201) to
the unpaired vein that traverses the right
thorax. The Greek azygos means "unyoked"
or "not a pair," and links a-, "without," +
zygon, "a yoke."amorphous (see morphology)
amphetamine is a drug whose use is now
more often illicit than licit. Its name is a sort
of acronym for its chemical designation as
alpha-methyl-phenyl-ethyl-am/ne.
amphiphilic (see tauro-)
amphoric describes the sound made by blowing across the mouth of a bottle. Amphoric
breath sounds are low-pitched and hollow;
when elicited by auscultation they may signify consolidation in the lungs. The Latin amphora, "a jar," comes from the Greek amphi,
"on both sides," + phoroi, "handles." The
narrow-necked jar commonly used in bygone
days had handles at both sides,
amphoteric is borrowed from the Greek amphoteros, “in both ways." An amphoteric substance is one having opposite properties, for
example, the capability of acting both as an
acid and as a base.
ampule is known to us as a small, sealed, glass
container used to preserve medicines in a
sterile, stable condition. The word comes
from the Latin ampulla, "flask." Ampulla
also refers in anatomy to a dilated segment
in a tubularstructure. An example is the ampulla of Voter, commemorating Abraham
Voter (1684-1751), a German anatomist.
Interestingly, the Latin ampulla also means
bombast or inflated discourse, as a "blowing
out.” Glass flasks were and are fashioned by
blown air.
amputation is borrowed from the Latin amputate, "a pruning," which, in turn, is derived
from ambi-, “around," + putatio, "cutting
12
amulet anaphylaxis
short, as in pruning." This is not to be confused with the Latin verb putare, "to think or
reckon," from which we derive our words putative, impute, compute, and computer,
amulet is an almost direct borrowing of the
Latin amuletum, "a talisman," usually worn
as a charm around the neck to ward off evil
influences. One version is thatthis is related
to the Arabic himala, "a carrier," especially as
a cord bearing a small Koran or prayer book
and worn about the neck. The early Christians wore amulets in the shape of a fish and
bearing the Greek word ichthus, "fish." This
was an acronym for "lesos Christos Theou Uios
Safer" (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior). In
former years it was not unusual to find children wearing cords carrying little bags of
asfetida around their necks. These were intended to ward offinfections. Asfetida (from
the Persian aza, "mastic," + Latin fetidus,
"stinking") has such a foul odor it discourages mingling and hence might lessen contagion. Today one occasionally finds a patient
presenting himself for a reassuring physical
examination and wearing a necklace bearing a saintly image as an amulet. This is
known as hedging a bet.
amygdaloid usually is thought of in connection with the amygdaloid nucleus of the
brain, an almond-shaped mass at the tail
end of the caudate nucleus. Its shape suggested its name from the Greek amygdale,
"almond,"+ eidos, "like."
amyl- is a combining form taken from the Greek
amylos, "starch," which, in turn, comprises
a-, "without," + myle, "mill," and is taken to
mean "not processed by milling." The explanation is that starch was originally obtained
from wheat that had not been ground,
amylase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes starches
and other polysaccharides, (see -ase)
amyloid is a glycoprotein substance that when
first found in certain diseased tissue was observed, when treated with iodine, to react by
forming a blue color. Hence, it was thought
to resemble starch and was called "amyloid"
from the Greek amylos, "starch," + eidos, "like."
anabolism means "building up" in the sense
of constructive metabolism, i.e., the formation of complex substances from simpler
components, as in the building of tissues
from nutritive elements. The term is derived
from the Greek anabole, "that which is thrown
up, a mound of earth." The Greek word combines ana-, "up," + ballein, "to hurl or throw."
Anbabolism is the opposite of catabolism,
a destructive metabolic process,
anacrotic (see dicrotic)
anaerobe (see aerobe)
analgesia is an insensitivity to pain or a suppression of the sense of pain, but with the
subject in a conscious state. It comes from the
Greek an-, "without," + algesis, "sense of
pain." An analgesic is a medication that
suppresses pain without inducing a loss of
consciousness,
analog (see anlage)
analysis is a Greek word that combines ana-,
"up," + lysis, "loosening." We use the word to
mean breaking up a whole, either material
or abstract, into its components, the usual
purpose being to gain an understanding of
that which is analyzed. This is what analysis
meant to the Greeks, too, though they added
the sense of dissolution, even death. It has
been suggested thatthe use ofthe term might
have begun with the practice of loosening up
earth to discover bits of gold or precious
stones. In medicine, analysis can apply either
to a substance or to thoughts. Urinalysis (a
contraction of UA (Urine Analysis; Urinalysis)) is the determination of the various constituents of urine.
Psychoanalysis (Greek psyche, "the mind or
soul") is an exploration of psychic content,
including that which may not be readily evident in the conscious mind,
anamnesis (see amnesia, also mnemonic)
anaphylaxis is an unusual or exaggerated reaction of an organism to foreign protein or
other immunoreactive substance. The word
was contrived by combining the Greek an-,
"without," + "a" (to separate the consonants)
- phylaxis, "protection." Charles Robert Richet
(1850-1935), a French physiologist, first used
the term in 1902 when he observed that a dog
previously injected with a noxious substance
would, on being given a second small injection of the same substance, react violently,
often with bronchial spasm. The original concept was thatthe first injection had so reduced
the dog's immunity to the noxious substance
that the dog was left without protection
13
anaplasia anesthesia
against the second dose. Only later was it
learned that the opposite occurred. The first
dose actually heightened the animal's
immune reaction to the second injection.
Nevertheless, a word was born. Richet was
awarded the Nobel prize for medicine and
physiology in 1913.
anaplasia combines the Greek preposition
ana-, here used in the sense of "backward,"
- plasein, "to mold or shape." In pathology,
an anaplastic neoplasm is one that has failed
to attain or has regressed from a more differentiated form. The term often connotes an
exceptionally virulent or intractable mode of
tumor growth.
anarthria (see a-)
anasarca is a condition of generalized, massive
edema. The term is said to have originated as
the Greek hydrops ana sarka, literally "dropsy
throughoutthe flesh."
anastomosis is a borrowing from the Greek
word of similar spelling which referred to an
opening or a junction through a mouth, as of
one body of water in relation to another. The
word is a compound of ana-, "through," +
stoma, "a mouth." Galen is said to have used
the term to describe interconnections between
blood vessels in the body. Today, "anastomosis" is used to refer both to a natural opening
between conduits (as in arteriovenous
anastomosis) as well as to an artificially
constructed connection (as in gastrojejunal
anastomosis).
anatomy is an almost direct borrowing of the
Greek anatome, the Greeks being among the
first to systematically dissect the human
body. The Greek word is a compound of ana-,
"up or through," + tome, "a cutting." Thus,
the earlier anatomy was a "cutting up," and
dissection remains to this day the essential
means of learning the structure of the body.
The study of the human body fell into disrepute during the so-called Dark Ages. Andreas
Vesalius (1514-1564), the renowned Flemish
anatomist, is generally credited with being
"the Father of Modern Anatomy," because
the study was revived with his publication of
De Humani Corporis Fabrica ("The Structure of
the Human Body") in 1543. Its wealth of
detail and many woodcut illustrations forever changed medical education in the West.
androgendesignates a sex hormone that occurs
naturally in both men and women but, when
present in excess from either an endogenous
or exogenous source, tends to stimulate development of male characteristics. The term
was contrived from the Greek andros, "man,"
- gennao, "I produce." Thus, an androgen
can be fancied as a "man maker." Unfortunately, misguided athletes have been known
to take this notion literally.
androgynism is a condition wherein both
male and female traits are evidentin a single
person. A derivative of the Greek gyne,
"woman," is tacked on to "andro-."
Andromeda strain is a term applied to any
microorganism whose accidental release
from a laboratory might have catastrophic
effects because its potential properties are
incompletely known. In Greek mythology,
Andromeda was a ravishing Ethiopian princess rescued from the clutches of an evil monster by Perseus. Her name was given to a
genus of evergreen shrubs and also to a constellation in the northern sky. From the latter,
Michael Crichton took the title of his 1969
novel in which an unknown type of bacteria
escapes from a returning space probe and
threatens to contaminate planet Earth.
anemia is from the Greek an-, "without," +
haima, "blood." Hence, a patient who is
anemic is wanting in blood. The British
spelling, more properly, is "anaemia." Incidentally, there is a genus of plants called
Anemone, but this is of quite a different
origin. The plants were popularly known as
"wind flowers," and the name presumably
comes from the Greek anemos, "wind." Sea
anemones are brightly colored polypoid creatures of the order Actiniaria and were named
after the flower.
anesthesia comes directly from the Greek an-,
"without," + aisthesis, "feeling or sensation."
The British, more faithful to the Greek, spell
it "anaesthesia.” In medicine, anesthesia has
come to have two meanings: (a) the symptom
wherein a part of the body has lost perception of pain or touch, and (b) the procedure
whereby a patient has been rendered incapable ofsensation, either by inducing a state of
total unconsciousness (general anesthesia) or
by blocking the neural pathway of sensation
14
aneurysm anlage
in a part of the body (local or regional anesthesia). Both meanings were known and used
in ancient times. Herodotus referred to the
effect of inhaling the vapor from burning
hemp, now known to be the result of liberated cannabis. A diminished but not absent
perception is hypesthesia (Greek hypo-,
"below"), whereas an enhanced perception is
hyperesthesia (Greek hyper-, "above"). To
Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894) goes
the credit for aptly applying the Greek term
to the use of ether to abolish the pain of
surgery. This he did in a letter dated 21
November 1846 addressed to William T. G.
Morton, the dentist who had successfully
demonstrated the procedure only a month
before at Massachusetts General Hospital in
Boston.
aneurysm is a near borrowing of the Greek
aneurysma, "a widening," which comprises
ana-, "up, through," + eurynein, "to widen."
In pathology the term designates a localized
dilatation of an artery. There are berry
aneurysms (the allusion is obvious), fusiform aneurysms (shaped like a spindle),
miliary aneurysms (tiny, like millet seeds),
and racemose aneurysms (clustered like a
bunch of grapes), among other types.
angi- is a combining form derived from the
Greek a[n]geion, "a vessel." The reference in
medicine is to a conduit for any of the body
fluids, notably blood, lymph, or bile. From
"angi-" have come such present-day medical
words as angiology, angiogram, lymphangioma, and cholangitis.
angina is a Latin word meaning "sore throat"
and comes from the Latin verb angere, "to
choke or throttle.” In former years, sublingual cellulitis, often with abscess, was known
as Ludwig’s angina after the German surgeon
Wilhelm von Ludwig (1790-1865). "Trench
mouth" or necrotizing gingivitis was called
Vincent's angina, after the Parisian physician
Henri Vincent (1862-1950). Today, "angina"
usually is taken to mean angina pectoris
(Latin pectus, "the chest"), the familiar crushing retrosternal pain resulting from myocardial ischemia. This relation to ischemia
has led "angina" far afield, and one may
hear of "abdominal angina” in reference to
severe pain in the abdomen resulting from
constriction of the mesenteric arteries. An
etymologist might regard this as "abominable angina."
angiogenesis tacks a derivative of the Greek
gennan, "to produce," to "angio-" to designate a type of neovascularization, particularly that which occurs in neoplasia. One
means of impeding neoplasia is suppression
of angiogenesis, which may also lessen the
chance of metastasis,
angiorrhexis (see rhexis)
angulus is a direct borrowing ofthe Latin word
for "angle” when referring to the bend in the
stomach at the junction of its body and
antrum.
animal is derived from the Latin animus,
"breath, spirit, or soul," related to the Greek
anemos, "wind." In this sense, an animal can
be any breathing thing, but its use is restricted to those life forms distinct from
plants. From the same source comes our adjective "animated" meaning spirited or full of
life, but also "animosity" meaning enmity,
anion (see ion)
anisocoria (see pupil)
anisocytosis (see cyto-)
ankle comes from the Old English ancleow,
which may be distantly related to the Greek
a[n]kylos, "bent or at an angle," referring to
the relation between the foot and the leg.
ankyl- is a combining form that means "bent,"
as in the form of a loop or noose, and is derived from the Greek a[n]kyle, "the bend in the
arm" and also "the looped thong by which a
javelin is hurled." The Greek a[n]kylos means
"bent or crooked." The Latin equivalentis angulus, from which we get “angle.” Ankylostoma (ankyl- + Greek stoma, "mouth”) is a
genus of nematode parasites, including the
hookworms. This worm finds it way to the intestine where it hooks onto the mucosa by
means of its crooked mouth. Ankylosis
refers to a fixation of joints, either by disease
or design, usually in a bent position,
anlage is a German word meaning "a plan or
arrangement." The noun is derived from the
verb anlegen, literally "to lay on," particularly
in the sense of "to prepare or set up.” Biologically, an anlage is whatever precedes or
"sets the stage" for something else. In embryology, an anlage is a forerunner or precursor
15
annulus anthracosis
of a more mature structure. This is distinct
from an analog (or analogue), a part or an
organ having the same function as another
but of a different evolutionary origin.
"Analog" is related to the Greek analogos,
"proportionate, or in conformity with." (see
homologue)
annulus means "a ring" but appears to be a
misspelling ofthe Latin anulus, “a little ring,"
as that which encircles, such as a ring worn
on a finger, being a diminutive of the Latin
anus, a ring of more substantial size. Perhaps
the confusion was with the Latin annus, "a
year," thought of as a circuit. In any event,
the spelling was corrected in a more recent
publication of Nomina Anatomica, the official pronouncement of the International
Congress of Anatomists. By the same token,
annular, "shaped like a ring," should be
spelled "anular," but it isn't and probably
never will be.
anode (see ion)
anodyne is a word seldom heard today, but formerly it was commonly used for any painkiller. It comes from the Greek an-, "without,"
- odyne, "pain." Opium and its derivatives,
for example, were and are anodynes.
anomaly refers to any deviation from the
normal and comes from the Greek an-, "not,"
- omalos, "even or level" and, metaphorically, "average or ordinary." In biology an
anomaly is usually a structure or organ that
is congenitally abnormal, but the word can
be used to refer to anything thatis out of the
ordinary.
anomia (see a-)
Anopheles is the name given to a genus of
mosquitoes notorious for transmitting the
malarial parasite and thus is directly implicated in perpetuating what is probably the
commonest disease of man worldwide. The
name comes from the Greek an-, "not," +
ophelos, "of advantage or use," and was bestowed on this pesky creature long before it
was identified as the vector of malaria by Sir
Ronald Ross (1857-1932) in 1898. Incidentally,
knowing the origin of this mosquito's name
also tells us the meaning of the feminine
name Ophelia: "useful." Mosquito, incidentally, is the diminutive ofthe Spanish mosca,
"a fly," from the Latin musca.
anorexia comes from the Greek an-, "lack of," +
orexis, "appetite," and it still means just that.
Incidentally, "Orexin" is the trade name of a
vitamin B supplement purveyed purportedly
as a stimulant to appetite. The Greek orexis
could also mean any other sort of yearning,
and perhaps that might account for a form of
the male hormone, testosterone, trade named
"Oreton." It seems marketers know their
Greek, or, if not, know someone who does.
anosmia comes from the Greek an-, "lack of," +
osme, "smell," and refers to the condition
wherein the sense of smell is lost. The element osmium is said to have been so named
because ofthe distinctive odor ofits vaporous
oxide (0s04). The Greek osme is notto be confused with osmos, "impulse" from which
comes "osmosis."
anoxia means a total lack of oxygen but is
often used interchangeably with hypoxia
(q.v.). The word derives from the Greek an-,
"lack of," + oxys, "sharp," in the sense of
"acid." (see oxygen)
ansa is the Latin word for "handle" but could
also mean "a loop, as used to fasten a
sandal." In anatomy the word is used for various loop-like structures, particularly small
loops of nerves.
antagonist is used in anatomy to designate a
muscle that opposes the action of another
muscle, and in pharmacology to designate a
substance having a blocking or opposing
effect. Thus, extensor muscles are antagonists
of flexor muscles, and beta-adrenergic blocking agents, such as propranolol, are antagonists of certain actions of epinephrine and
other sympathomimetic amines. The Greek
antagonixomai means "to struggle against,"
and antagonistes means “an adversary or
rival." These words, in turn, come from anti-,
"against," + agon, "struggle." (see agony)
antecubital locates the fossa or hollow in front
ofthe elbow (Latin ante, "before or in front" +
cubitum, "the elbow"). A related term is
"cubit," an archaic unit of measure, being
the distance from the elbow to the fingertips.
anthracosis is a lung disease caused by inhaling coal dust and thereby often afflicts
coal miners. The condition also is called
"black lung disease." The name was taken
from the Greek anthrax, "coal,” which by
16
anthrax antisepsis
direct borrowing had, much earlier, been
used as the name for a quite different disease,
as noted below.
anthrax is an infectious disease of wild and domesticated animals that can be transmitted
to man. Its principal feature is a carbuncle
that can become necrotic and ulcerated. Such
a lesion can have a hard, black center surrounded by red inflammation, resembling a
burning chunk of coal and thus accounting
for its name, taken directly from the Greek
anthrax, "coal." The causative organism,
Bacillus anthracis, can lurk in the hides or
wool from infected animals, and human anthrax has been known as "woolsorter's disease," among other names. The development
of a vaccine effective against anthrax in
sheep went far to advance the career of Louis
Pasteur (1822-1895), the celebrated French
bacteriologist.
anthropo- is a combining form taken from the
Greek anthropos, "a man." This has given us
numerous words, such as anthropocentric
(a perspective that places man at the center
of the universe), anthropoid, "like a man,"
in reference to certain subhuman primates),
anthropology (the study or science of
man), and anthropomorphism (the attribution of human form or character to nonhufnan objects, such as classical deities).
antibiotic derives from the Greek anti-,
"against," + biotos, "the means of life." The
word has had different meanings through the
centuries. Ancient philosophers may have
used a similar word to mean resistance, in
the sense of dealing with the vicissitudes of
life. In the 19th century, "antibiotic" referred
to a belief opposed to the possibility oflife, as
on other planets. The modern medical use of
the word was introduced in 1941 by Selman
A. Waksman (1888-1973), who reported finding a strain of actinomyces, an extract of
which inhibited the growth of some bacteria.
In 1929 Alexander Fleming (1881-1955) first
reported an antagonism between certain microorganisms, but it was Selman Waksman
who adapted "antibiotic" to the process.
antibody is a word contrived in the late 19th
century to include a variety ofsubstances that
had been discovered to combat infection and
its adverse effects. Among these substances
were antitoxins, agglutinins, and preciptins.
All ofthese substances or "bodies" seemed to
be "anti" something, so they were called,
simply and collectively, "antibodies." Therefore, the original idea was not thatthese substances were "against the body" but rather
thatthey were "bodies" (for want of a better
term) "against" something else. The term in
English is a loan-translation of the German
Antikorper. Only later was "antigen" contrived
as a name forwhatever might induce the formation or activity of these antibodies. Today,
"antibody" is restricted to the immunoglobulins ofthe E-type that are elaborated by immunoreactive lymphocytes ofthe B-type.
antidote is almost direct borrowing of the
Greek antidotos, which means "an exchange"
and comes from a combination of anti-,
"against," + dotos, "what is given." An antidote is administered "against," or in opposition to, a poison.
antigenis a word contrived to name a substance
that induces an immune reaction. As noted
above, the word “antibody" came first as a collective term for a variety of newly discovered
substances that seemed to have a combative
or nullifying effect in infection and its concomitants. "Antigen" was devised as a name
for whatever stimulated or activated antibodies. The word "antigen" was suggested by the
Greek anti-, "against,” + gennan, "to produce."
The sense, of course, is not that antigens are
"against production." Quite the opposite:
antigens are conceived to produce or generate
whatever is "anti." Ifthis sounds confusing, it
may be because immunologists seldom are as
devoted to semantics as to science. But then,
could a semanticist have done any better?
antihelix is the name given to the prominent
ridge at the meatus of the outer ear. This is
situated opposite the twisted part ofthe outer
ear and accounts for the name, being derived
from the Greek anti-, "opposite," + helix, "that
which is twisted."
antipyretic is derived from the Greek anti-,
"against," + pyretos, "fever," and refersto whatever has the effect of reducing orsuppressing
fever. The root word is the Greek pyr, "fire."
antisepsis was contrived from a combination
of the Greek anti-, “against,” + sepsis, "putrefaction." Today we think of antisepsis as any
17
antitoxin apheresis
treatment that disables a potentially pathogenic substance or organism. But the word
"antisepsis" actually antedates the promulgation of the germ theory of disease. It was
first used in the early 18th century to refer to
elimination of anything thought to be putrefactive as a means of combating a plague.
Joseph Lister (1827-1912), the celebrated
English surgeon, promoted the modem use of
antisepsis as a means ofreducing infection in
wounds. His surname was taken as the basis
for the trade name of a popular mouthwash
that is advertised to "kill germs on contact."
He is also memorialized in the naming ofthe
genus Listeria. (see asepsis)
antitoxin (see toxin)
antrum is a Latin word that means "cave or
cavity." Its Greek counterpart is antron, also
"a cave." In anatomy, "antrum" can refer to
any cavity or chamber. The maxillary sinus
often is called the antrum, and the lower portion of the stomach is referred to as the gastric or prepyloric antrum,
anuria is complete suppression of urinary excretion by the kidneys, (see urine)
anus is the nether opening of the alimentary
canal through which feces are expelled. The
Latin anus meant the same thing to the
Romans. It also meant "ring," in the sense of
encirclement. This would seem appropriate
inasmuch as the anus encircles the outlet of
the bowel.
anxiety is an ancient complaint for which the
Romans had almost the same word in the
Latin anxietas, "trouble, worry."
anxiolytic (see sedative; also tranquilizer)
aorta is almost a direct borrowing ofthe Greek
aorte, the name by which Aristotle referred to
the main arterial channel issuing from the
heart. But where did the Greeks get aorte?
Authorities are divided in their explanations.
The source could have been the Greek verbs
aeirein, "to lift," or aortemai, "to suspend."
Then, there is a Greek noun aorterthat means
"a strap over the shoulder to hang anything
on." When viewing the opened chest of a cadaver it is easy to see how the aorta might
look like a curved strap from which hang the
heart, the kidneys, and the abdominal viscera. The Greeks, lacking knowledge of circulating blood and believing that arteries
contained air, may have likened the aorta to
a sturdy strap.
APACHE is the acronym for a scheme by which
the status of a critically ill patient can be
evaluated, usually in the milieu of an intensive care unit. The initials stand for Acute
Physiology And Chronic Health Evaluation,
aperture comes from the Latin apertus, "uncovered, exposed," the past participle of aperire,
"to reveal, to open." An aperture, then, is an
opening through which something can be seen
or made evident. The piriform ("pear-shaped")
aperture is the opening in the anterior skull
through which the nasal passage can be observed. In years past, what we now call laxatives were known even more delicately as
aperients, the allusion being obvious,
apex is a direct borrowing ofthe Latin word and
means topmost point of anything. It is said
to have originally referred to the peak of a
high priest's cap. The plural is apices. Thus
we refer to the apex of one lung and to the
apices of both lungs.
APGAR is an acronym with a triple meaning.
First, it represents a numerical expression, on
a scale of 1 to 10, of the condition of a newborn infant based on assessment of heart
rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, reflex
irritability, and skin color, taking into consideration observation of Adaptability, Partnership, Growth, Affection, and Resolve. Second,
the scheme has been adopted as the American Pediatric Gross Assessment Record. Third,
it is the actual name of its originator, Virginia Apgar, an American anesthesiologist
who first published the concept (Res Anesth
Analg. 1953;32:260).
aphagia (see dysphagia)
aphakia (see lens)
aphasia connects the Greek a-, "without," +
phasis, "speech," and is used to describe a
defect or loss of expression or comprehension
of language. It can be a symptom of various
destructive brain lesions. "Aphasia" is not to
be confused with "aphagia," words pronounced nearly the same.
-apheresis is a combining suffix derived from
the Greek aphairesis, "a taking away," which
in turn contains elements of apo-, "away," +
hairein, "to take." In linguistics, apheresis (or
aphaeresis) occurs when a shortsyllable has
18
aphonia apoptosis
been deleted from a word, as in the use of
"most" when "almost" is meant. In medicine,
the form indicates "a taking away" of whatever precedes the suffix, and its most familiar
use is in plasmapheresis, the process whereby the plasma component of blood is separated from erythrocytes and other formed
elements by centrifugation. Plasmapheresis
can be employed to prepare freshly frozen
plasma and "packed red blood cells" for
transfusion or to remove wanted or unwanted
substances in plasma while preserving the
cellular content of blood to be returned to the
donor.
aphonia links the Greek a-, "without," + phone,
"voice," to mean an inability to speak. It can
refer to a loss ofthe voice from any cause, as
minor as laryngitis or as grave as stroke.
aphrodisiac describes an agent alleged to enhance libido. Aphrodite, the ancient Greek
goddess of beauty and sexual love, is said to
have sprung from the foam of the sea (Greek
aphros, "foam"), perhaps as a result of Zeus'
dalliance with Dione, one of the female
Titans. Aphrodite's counterpart in Roman
mythology is Venus, from whose name we
get venereal, meaning whatever pertains to
the act of love. Whatever is purported to
quell the baser passions (e.g., saltpeter) is an
anaphrodisiac.
aphthous describes certain ulcers in a mucous
membrane, usually in the mouth but also in
the lining of other hollow viscera. The Greek
aphthai ("spotted eruption") was used as a
name for thrush, an exudative inflammation
of the oral mucosa. Aphthai is related to the
Greek verb aptein, which could mean both "to
cling" (as does an exudate) and "to kindle or
set aflame," a characteristic of inflammation. The Greeks had a great fear of aphthai
because for them the term also included
diphtheria, which they recognized as often
fatal to children.
apnea means a suspension of breathing, either
voluntary, as in "holding one's breath," or
involuntarily, as during sleep or coma. This
is just what apnoia meant to the Greeks, who
derived their word from a-, "not," + pnein,
"to breathe."
apo- is a combining form taken directly from
the Greek preposition meaning "away from,
far from, apart from, derived from," and is
the prefix to a host of Greek words, many of
which we have converted to English, e.g.,
apocryphal, apogee, apology, apostasy, apostle,
and apostrophe. Medical terminology is rich
in apo- words, a sampling of which follows,
apocrine describes a type of glandularsecretion
in which the apical or free end of a secreting
cell is cast off along with the substance being
secreted, e.g., the product of the axillary
sweat glands. The term links apo- + the Greek
krinesthi, "to be secreted."
aponeurosis is a thin, wide tendon from which
dense connective tissue is broadly splayed
into the muscle for which it serves as an attachment. This being so, why does the name
sound as if it had something to do with
nerves? The answer is thatthe ancient Greeks
were unable distinguish tendons and nerves.
Dense, white strands looked all the same to
them and were called by the collective term
neuros. "Aponeurosis" combines apo-, "from,"
- neuros, in this case "a tendon."
apophysis as a Greek word means "an offshoot" and was derived by combining apowith phthysis, "growth." "Apophysis" now
means a projection from a bone otherthan an
epiphysis (which has a different meaning),
apoplexy is a near borrowing of the Greek
apoplexia, which meant "a seizure" as a result
of being "struck down." The word combines
apo- + plexe, "a stroke." The common belief
was that anyone seized by sudden disability
was "struck down" by the gods. This idea persists in our use ofthe word "stroke" in reference to the consequence of an abrupt, severe,
cerebrovascular disturbance. Curious, too, is
that we habitually refer to "cerebrovascular
accidents," as if these tragic events were the
result of a "falling out" among the heavenly
bodies that guide our courses. Incidentally,
by knowing the origin and meaning of
"apoplexy" one can avoid the fatuous redundancy ofspeaking of an apoplectic stroke or
a stroke of apoplexy.
apoptosis is a neologism that has been recently
gaining currency in pathophysiological circles. The term refers to the dissolution of
tissue cells in their natural life cycle, in contrastto premature necrosis (q.v.) unnaturally
induced. The process of apoptosis involves
19
apothecary aqueduct
the fragmentation of cellular components
into membrane-bound particles that are then
eliminated by phagocytosis or otherwise carried off. The term combines apo- + ptosis, "a
falling." Incidentally, the word is properly
pronounced “a-po-ptosis," not “a-pop-tosis."
In classical Greek, "p" before a consonant is
a barely audible labial whisper.
apothecary in its original meaning comes
closer than one might guess to the modern
American drugstore with its shelves displaying everything from animal crackers to zippers. It is a near borrowing of the Greek
apotheke, "a storehouse,” which is a composite of apo-, "away," + theke, "a case or cover,”
related to tithenai, "to put." It was not until
the 17th century that England's "chemists"
(as the British call druggists) and grocers formally agreed that henceforth apothecaries
would stock only drugs, while grocers would
limit their trade to foodstuffs. Now, it would
seem we have come full circle. The shelves
of modern supermarkets are laden with
over-the-counter medicaments, while drugstores offer almost everything under the sun.
By a strange quirk, an apothecary shop
today is one that deals exclusively in prescription drugs, eschewing even a soda fountain. The apothecary scale is a system of
measure in which an ounce is equivalent to
480 grains and a pound contains 12 ounces.
In the avoirdupois scale, more commonly
used, a pound consists of 16 ounces. The
French avoir du pois means "goods sold by
weight."
appall is not strictly a medical term, but it has
a kind of physiologic origin. It comes from
the Latin a-, ad-, "toward," + pallere, "to turn
pale." Related is our word "pallor," a deficiency of color, usually in the face, that can
be an adrenergic reaction wherein cutaneous
arterioles are constricted, thus causing the
skin to blanche. Anything that appalls may
be so dismaying as to make one turn pale.
apparatus comes from the Latin apparare, "to
prepare," a linkage of a-, "to," + paratus,
"ready." This brings to mind the motto of the
U.S. Coast Guard, Semper paratus, "Always
ready." From its derivation, then, "apparatus"
carries the implication ofsome arrangement
or device "made ready" or prepared for a
given purpose. A meaningless device could
not properly be called an apparatus.
appendix (see vermis)
appetite is an almost direct borrowing of the
Latin appetitio, "grasping or craving," which,
in turn, combines ad- (as ap-), "toward," + petitus, "desire," the past participle of petere, "to
seek, attack, or fall upon"). Petulant, impetuous, impetus, complete, and repeat are all
similarly derived. (However, the English noun
"pet" and the verb "to pet" are not related;
their origin is obscure.) Appetite can be a
craving for almost anything, though usually
we think of appetite in terms of a hearty
desire for nourishment. But there are other
appetites to serve, some leading to misbehavior. The Due de la Rochefoucauld (1613-1680)
wrote that what a man of advancing age
claims as a gain in virtue is more likely to be
only a loss of appetite. Appestat is a cleverly
contrived (though etymologically suspect)
term for the postulated hypothalamic center
that governs desire for food.
aqua is the Latin word for water. Some have said
that aqua is related to the Latin aequa, meaning "smooth or level," the idea being thatthe
surface of water in a bucket or a pond, when
not unduly disturbed, is level. But mostscholars attribute aqua to the postulated IndoEuropean form akwa. Surely the earliest
speaking man had a word for water. (The
English "water," incidentally, comes from the
Old English waeter, presumed to have been
derived from the Indo-European form awer,
"wet, or to flow.") Medieval alchemists combined aqua with all sorts ofromantic terms to
describe various liquids: aqua fortis ("strong
water") was nitric acid; aqua regis ("royal
water") was a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric adds, so called because it alone could
dissolve gold (which would seem a royally extravagant feat); aqua vitae ("water of life")
became a collective term for ardent spiritous
liquors. This shows that prevailing attitudes
haven't really changed through the years. The
Celtic uisge-beatha became "whiskey," and
the Slavic voda ("water") became "vodka."
Scandinavians hardly bothered to change the
Latin when they named akvavit.
aqueduct is borrowed from the Latin aquaeductus, which, in turn, combines aqua, "water," +
20
arabinose argon
ductus, "a conduit" (from the verb ducere, "to
lead"). In anatomy, the name "aqueduct" is
given to several channels through various
structures, usually for the passage of fluid. An
example is the aqueduct of Sylvius that connects the third and fourth ventricles of the
brain and serves as a passage for cerebrospinal fluid. Jacobus Sylvius (1478-1555),
who before Latinizing his name was plain
Jacque Dubois, was a French anatomist and
preceptor of Vesalius. Note that despite its relation to aqua, "aqueduct" in English contains an "e" and not a second "a." The
classical spelling would be "aquaeduct," but
usage has worn away the second “a."
arabinose (see ribose)
arachidonic is the name of an unsaturated
fatty acid that has come into recent prominence as the natural precursor of the ubiquitous prostaglandins, substances now
recognized to exhibit important physiologic
roles, as well as pharmacologic properties.
Arachidic acid, a saturated fatty acid, was
first isolated from peanut oil and named
from the Latin arachis, "peanut." Arachidonic acid, the fatty acid with four double
bonds, was thus named to indicate a relation,
arachnodactyly (see -dactyl-)
arachnoid comes from the Greek arachne,
"spider," + eidos, "like," and describes whatever might resemble or relate to a spider. The
patient with advanced cirrhosis can have a
large belly swollen by ascites and spindly
arms and legs shrunken by wasting of the
flesh. Such a patient is said to have an
"arachnoid" habitus. Also, the arachnoid
membrane is a delicate, web-like covering of
the brain and spinal cord. The Greek word is
associated with Arachne, a mythological
Lydian maiden who was so adept at weaving
that she presumed to challenge the goddess
Athene to a contest of skill. Athene tried to
warn her of the consequence of her brashness, but Arachne would not yield. The contest proceeded, and both the maiden and the
goddess were incredibly deft in their weaving.
From this point there are two, slightly different versions of the story. In one, Arachne finally recognizes her folly and is so stricken
with remorse that she hangs herself; Athene
brings her to life, but as a spider. In the other
version, Athene feels threatened and uses her
supernatural power to imbue Arachne with
such guilt that the maiden hangs herself,
whereupon Athene turns Arachne into a
spider hanging forevermore from its web, a
lasting warning to mortals who might fall
into Arachne's error of challenging the gods.
arcus is the Latin word for "bow," and from it
came our words "arch" and "archery."
"Arcuate" in anatomy describes whatever is
bow-shaped. Arcus senilis is a bow-shaped
or circular cloudy opacity atthe periphery of
the cornea, often seen in the eyes of elderly
persons.
areola is the diminutive of the Latin area, "an
open space, courtyard, or park." An areola,
then, is "a little space." In the skin, an areola
is usually a small area set apart by being of
different color or texture, particularly around
a central point. The areola surrounding the
nipple orthe zone of erythema around a pustule qualifies by this definition. Areolar tissue
was so named because of the little spaces between the fibers of loose connective tissue.
argentum is the Latin word forsilver, related to
the Greek argyros, "silver," and argos, "white
or shining." With a bit of license, these words
were abbreviated as the chemical symbol
"Ag." The Greek and Latin terms may have
originated in the Sanskrit root radj, "to
shine." Argyria and argyrosis are terms for
the condition wherein silver salts are deposited in tissues of the body. This can be evident as a peculiar, slate-gray cast of the skin
and as a dark line of silver pigment at the
gingival margin. Years ago this was seen in
patients who had consumed large quantities
of "Argyrol," a proprietary silver-protein
medicament prescribed for sore throats and
nervous disorders. An eccentric Philadelphian, Albert C. Barnes, amassed a fortune
from the sale of this concoction, thereby acquiring a world-renowned collection of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist paintings
that for many years was jealously guarded
from public view in his own private museum.
argon is the name of an almost inert gaseous
element that, among other uses, has been
adapted to devices producing laser beams
that lately have been applied to medical purposes. Before this usefulness was discovered,
21
argyria artery
the name "argon" was contrived from the a-,
"not," + Greek ergon, “work." Being inert,
argon was thoughtto do no work,
argyria (see argentum)
arm has its analogues in Old Frisian and other
Teutonic languages. The Old Norse armr referred to that portion of the upper extremity
between the shoulder and the elbow, probably more specifically to the shoulder. The
Aryan form ar meant "to fit or join." The
Latin armus refers to the shoulder and upper
arm. But the word usually used by the
Romans was bracchium, from which we take
the anatomic adjective brachial, “of the
arm," as in the brachial plexus (of nerves)
and the brachial artery and vein. This is
not to be confused with the prefix brachy-,
derived from the Greek brachys, "short." Incidentally, during World War II enlisted men
were subjected to periodic examination of
their genitals supposedly to detect signs of
venereal disease. These indignities were
known as "short arm inspections."
armamentarium is a direct borrowing of the
Latin word meaning “arsenal or armory"
and, thus, a collection of weapons. In medicine, a "therapeutic armamentarium" refers
to an assortment of remedies available to
combat disease or injury,
arrheno- is a combining form taken from the
Greek arrhen, "male." An arrhenoblastoma
is a neoplasm arising in the stroma of an
ovary, which in some cases produces a hormonal masculinizing effect in the host,
ars is dted here because itintroducesthe maxim
Ars longa, vita brevis, often quoted by worldlywise professors to weary students. While the
quotation is usually given in Latin, the maxim
is attributed to Hippocrates, the famous Greek
physician of the 5th century B.C. A literal
translation is: "The art is long; life is short."
John H. Dirckx in his book The Language of
Medicine (New York: Praeger Publishers, 2nd
edition, 1983) offers what he believes to be a
translation more faithful to the spirit of the
original: "The craft of healing is so complex
that you will scarcely master it in a lifetime."
Often one is reminded, "Medicine is both an
art and a science." Usually this is taken to
mean that the profession of medicine combines an aesthetic and a practical sense. The
Latin ars, artis, cognate with the Greek techne,
means "a trade, handicraft" (whence "artisan"), whereas the Latin scientia implies
"knowledge" in the cognitive sense. Dirckx
goes on to point out that though the characterization of medicine as both an art and a
science conveys nearly the same meaning
now as many years ago, the two key words
have virtually exchanged meanings,
arse is a time-honored, if somewhat archaic,
word descended from the Teutonic and meaning "the fundament, posterior, or rump" of
any animal, including man. Commonly the
word is corrupted, through ignorance, by
deleting the "r" and "e," then adding an
extra "s." This results in a wholly unrelated
word that properly designates the long-eared,
sure-footed, patient, domesticated mammal
Equus asinus. To the Romans, the Latin asinus
meant both "a donkey" and "a fool," which
seems a shameful degradation ofthe faithful
beast of burden. The Greek word for donkey
was onos, and the Latin onus means "burden."
To avoid mistaking "ass" for "arse," remember
the limerick:
There once was a maid from Madras
Who had a magnificent ass.
Not rounded and pink,
As you probably think—
It was gray, had long ears, and ate grass.
arsenic comes through the Old French from the
Latin arsenicum (arrenicum) and the Greek arsenikon (arrenikon), "a yellow ointment."
Because ointments containing arsenic were
thought to be "strong," some writers relate
the term to the Greek adjective arrenikos,
"masculine or male." Another connection
may be with the Persian zamika, wherein zar
means "gold."
artemisinin (see cinchona)
arteriosclerosis is a word introduced by
Johann Lobstein (1777-1835), a Strasbourg
surgeon, in 1833. It combines the Greek
arteria, "vessel," + skleros, "hard," + -osis, "a
condition," thus "a hardening ofthe arteries."
artery has been handed down through the ages
as a word for an efferent vessel leading from
the heart, but it all began with a misconception. The term is derived from the Greek
arteria, which, in turn, came from aer-, "air,"
- terein, "to contain," thus "an air duct." The
22
arthritis ascorbic acid
ancients used arteria to refer to the windpipe,
but because the efferent vessels from the
heart usually were empty when cadavers
were dissected, the term arteria was applied to
these, too. Phlebos, from phled, "I flow," was
applied to veins and sometimes to blood vessels generally. Although it soon became apparent, even to the ancients, that efferent
vessels carried blood, the term stuck as arteria
leiai, "smooth artery," in distinction to arteria
tracheia, "rough artery," which we know
simply as the trachea.
arthritis comes from the Greek arthros, "a
joint," with the suffix denoting inflammation. Arthralgia (+ the Greek algos, "pain")
refers to sore joints. Arthrodesis (+ the
Greek desmeo, "I bind") means a procedure
designed to immobilize or stiffen a joint.
Arthroplasty (+ the Greek plassein, "to form
or to fashion") means to reconstruct a joint.
Remarkably, the first report of an operative
attempt to fashion an artifical joint was
recorded in 1826 by John Rhea Barton (1794-
1871), an American surgeon (NAmer Med Surg
/. 3:279). Only recently, with the development
of new materials and innovative techniques,
has arthroplasty become widely applied,
articulation refers to the joining or juncture or
two structures, usually bones, and comes
from the Latin articulus, “a joint." This, in
turn, is a diminutive ofthe Latin artus, meaning "fitted, close, or narrow." Any jointed
structure is "articulated." When applied to
the act of speech, "to articulate" means to
properly join the tongue, palate, teeth, and
lips so as to produce intelligible sound,
artificial describes what is made or manufactured as opposed to that which occurs naturally. The term is from the Latin ars, artis,
"craft" + factus, "made." Thus, an artifact
(also spelled artefact) in medicine, as pertains generally, is anything produced or
caused to occur by otherthan natural means,
arytenoid is the descriptive name given to the
two opposing cartilages of the larynx. Their
pyramidal shape suggests a ladle or cup,
whence their name from the Greek arytaina,
"a pitcher,” + eidos, "like."
asbestosis denotes a condition caused by exposure to asbestos. Presently, asbestos is
recognized as a carcinogen giving rise to
mesothelioma in pleural and peritoneal surfaces. The mineral substance got its name
from a-, "not," + the Greek sbennumi, "to
quench," i.e., unquenchable. The name is said
to have been originally that of a mythical
substance which, once ignited, could not be
extinguished. In some strange way the reference was reversed when the name was given to
a substance that would not bum. In a manner
of speaking, one might suppose that whatever could not burn would also be unquenchable. In any event, asbestos was known as a
mineral fiber to the ancients who used it as
wicks for lamps and as cremation cloths.
ascaris is a direct borrowing of the Greek
askaris, the name given to intestinal worms.
The origin ofthisterm is obscure, butit might
relate to the Greek asketos, "fidgety, irrepressible," which would aptly describe a person
sorely affected by intestinal worms. The
common nematode or roundworm was
named Ascaris lumbricoides by Linnaeus. This
would seem a redundantinasmuch as lumbricus is the Latin word for "worm," often used
by the Romans also as a term of reproach.
ascites comes from the Greek askos, "a pouch or
sack, "such as that made ofleather and used
to carry oil, wine, or water. That the fluidfilled abdomen was thought to resemble a
wine sack is ironic in that we now recognize
alcoholic liver disease as the commonest
cause of ascites.
ascorbic acid (also known as vitamin C) is a
sovereign remedy for scurvy, as its name implies, being from the Latin a-, "against," +
scorbutus, "scurvy" (see scorbutus). The disease was known to the ancients, but not its
cause or cure. A dietary relationship had long
been suspected. Jacques Cartier, the 16th-century French explorer ofNorth America, is said
to have learned from the Indians of Canada
how to cure scurvy by making a decoction of
spruce needles. Butit remained for James Lind
(1716-1794), a surgeon in the Royal Navy, to
prove the ascorbutic properties of certain
foods. In 1747, while serving aboard HMS
Salisbury, Lind gave sailors stricken with scurvy
either cider, vinegar, elixir ofvitriol (a sulfate),
seawater, nutmeg, various cathartics, oranges,
or lemons. Evidently he wished to leave no
potentially ascorbutic stone unturned. After
23
-ase asterixis
six days, those given citrus fruits miraculously recovered; the others languished. Lind
had proved the presence of a potent antiscurvy principle in citrus fruits, although the
concept of vitamin substances lay far in the
future. This probably was the first "controlled" clinical trial in medical history even
though not "double-blinded" or strictly "randomized." (see hip)
-ase is a suffix used to designate an enzyme. It
is a contraction of diastase, a neologism
contrived as a name for the first recognized
enzyme. This happened to be a substance obtained from malt that was found capable of
hydrolyzing starch. The word "diastase" appears to have been coined about 1833 and
was borrowed from the Greek diastasis, "a
separation." This, in turn, is a compound of
dia-, "through or apart," + histanai, "to stand."
Thus, the substance found to make the components of starch "stand apart" was called
"diastase," and this was later recognized to
be an enzyme (a word coined later). With the
discovery of a multitude ofsubstances exerting such splitting or "stand apart" activity,
"-ase" was conceived as being a handy suffix
to designate an enzymatic effect,
asepsis comes from the a-, "without," + the
Greek sepsis, "putrefaction." Thus, asepsis
pertains when no putrefying agent, such as
bacteria, is present. The origin ofthe term denotes the distinction between asepsis and antisepsis, the latter implying that putrefaction
is counteracted,
asfetida (see amulet)
Asklepios (see Aesculapius)
Aspergillis is a genus of fungi whose structure
was thought to resemble an aspergillum, the
Latin name for a small brush used by priests
to sprinkle holy water. This, in turn, comes
from the Latin verb aspergere, "to spray."
asphyxia has become a somewhat misplaced
term. The word comprises a-, "without," + the
Greek sphyxis, "pulse," and should mean
"pulseless." Originally, the term was applied
by the ancients to any condition marked by a
diminished or absent arterial pulse, signifying a cessation of the heartbeat. Commonly,
in such instances, breathing also had ceased,
and the term came to be associated mainly
with an absence ofrespiration. In actual fact,
when breathing has been impeded, the heart
continues to beat, and a pulse persists for a
remarkably long time. Nevertheless, the use
of the term "asphyxia" to mean "suspended
animation from suffocation" has persisted
much longer.
aspirate is a term that, in medical parlance, has
been turned around from its original meaning. The Latin aspirare means "to breathe or
blow upon" (from a-, ad-, "toward," + spirare,
"to breathe"). An aspirate, when the word is
used as a noun in phonetics, is the slightly
coughed "h" sound and thus preserves the
original sense. But in medicine, "aspirate" is
used as a verb with two meanings: to remove
gas or fluid by suction, and to inhale foreign
substances into the respiratory passages. To
suck or to inhale are the opposite of "to blow
toward," but at least we seem to know what
we mean when we talk of "aspirating" joint
fluid or when we say a patient "aspirated"
gastric contents.
aspirin was originally a trademark that has
passed into the common language. "Aspirin,"
as a trademark requiring a capital "A," was
the name given by the Bayer company of
Germany to its preparation of acetylsalicylic
acid (see salicylate). Salicylic acid was first
extracted from the plant Spiraea ulmaria, and
the principal component of this extract was
known by the German term spiroylige Sauer,
later shortened to Spirsauer. An "A," to designate "acetyl," was added to "spir," with "-in"
as a suffix, and thus "Aspirin" was contrived.
astereognosis is the loss of ability to identify
familiar objects by feeling their shape. A patient so afflicted, for example, cannot recognize, with his eyes closed, a key thatis placed
in his hand. The term links a-, “without," +
the Greek stereos, "solid, three dimensional,"
- gnosis, "knowledge, recognition."
asterixis describes the clonic movements, especially of the hands, by patients afflicted with
various encephalopathies, but particularly
that associated with advanced liver disease.
The term links a-, "without," + the Greek sterixis, "a fixed position." The patient with
portal-systemic encephalopathy cannot hold
his hands in a fixed position. This alternating motion ofthe hands sometimes is called
"liver flap."
24
asthenia atlas
asthenia means "weak" and is derived from a-,
"without, lacking," + the Greek sthenos,
“strength." The asthenic habitus is that ofthe
thin, frail person. Rather than being content
with just "sthenic,” we describe the husky,
muscular person as hypersthenic,
asthma is a direct borrowing of the Greek word
for "gasping or panting." Asthma was defined as "sonorous wheezing" by Celsus in
the 1st century A.D.
astigmatism combines a-, "without," + the
Greek stigma, "a point," hence, "no point."
In ophthalmology this means "no point of
convergence" as a cause of impaired vision.
The condition was recognized in the early
19th century and soon after was shown to
be corrected by the use ofslightly cylindrical
lenses. It seems a pity the word is never
otherwise used. It would be apt to put down
an opponent by saying, "Your argument is
astigmatic!"
astragulus (see talus)
astringentis the property of a substance, when
applied to a moist or weeping surface, to dry
up a fluid discharge. An example is the use
of aluminum chloride in antiperspirants or
deodorants. The source of the term is the
Latin verb astringere, “to tighten, bind, or
compress."
astrocyte is from the Greek aster, "star," + kytos,
"a cell," and is the name given to a starshaped cell found in the supporting tissues of
the central nervous system. An astrocytoma (+ Greek -oma, "swelling") is a neoplasm arising from these cells,
asylum is a direct borrowing ofthe Latin word
for “refuge or sanctuary." This, in turn, came
from the Greek asylon, "refuge," which came
from a combination of a-, "without," + syle,
"violence or right of seizure." In ancient
Greece certain temples or sacred places were
accorded the privilege of protecting from
seizure slaves or persons accused of criminal
acts. From this, the meaning of "asylum" was
extended to any place that offered refuge for
persons needing protection or shelter. In
years past, in our own country, reference
commonly was made to "an orphan asylum"
or to "an insane asylum."
atavism refers to "the apparent inheritance
of a characteristic from remote rather than
immediate ancestors due to a chance recombination of genes or to unusual environmental conditions favorable to their expression"
(Dorland's). The word is derived from the
Latin at-, "beyond," + avus, "grandfather."
Hence, an atavistic expression cannot be
blamed on Grandfather, but relates to someone farther up on the family tree.
ataxia comes from a-, "without," + the Greek
taxis, "order or arrangement." The term refers
to a lack of motor coordination, particularly
that disturbing the gait, a sign of neurologic
disorder.
atelectasis links a-, "without," + the Greek
teios, "complete," + ectasis, "extension or expansion." The term usually is applied to the
lungs and refers either to a failure of expansion at birth or to a collapse of previously expanded lung tissue.
atheroma is from the Greek athere, "gruel or
porridge," + -oma, "a rising," thereby having
the sense of swelling with the consistency of
mush. In ancient times the term was used to
describe any mushy swelling, such as a sebacious cyst. Now it refers to the fatty excrescences that accumulate in the endothelium
of arteries.
athetosis is a condition marked by involuntary, writhing movements, especially of the
hands and arms. Such a sign is seen in patients with various forms of motor disorder
due to disturbance in the central nervous
system (see chorea). The Greek athetos
means "lacking a fixed position" and represents a combinations of a-, "without," +
tithenai, "to bring into position." This last
part suggests our word "tether," which comes
from the Old Norse tjddr but probably shares
a common Indo-European root with the
Greek word.
athlete's foot is a euphemism for ringworm infection ofthe feet coined in 1928 by an enterprising advertising copywriter touting the
purported anti-fungal property of a proprietary product called "Absorbine Jr."
atlas is the name of the first cervical vertebra
and also is used to designate a collection of
pictorial illustrations. What is the connection? The original Atlas was the name of one
of the mythical Titans, descendents of the
primordial deities. After a falling out with
25
atom aura
Perseus, son of Zeus, Atlas was turned into
stone and condemned to carry on his shoulders the weight of the earth and its heavens.
A depiction ofAtlas bearing the globe became
a common adornment of maps. Soon a compilation of maps and other illustrations
became known as an "atlas." Meanwhile, the
bone bearing the globe of the head, i.e., the
uppermost cervical vertebra, also came to be
known as the atlas.
atom is from the Greek atomos, meaning "uncut
or indivisible," being derived from a-, "not,"
- temnein, "to cut." The idea that all matter is
composed of particles was accepted by ancient
philosophers. The ultimate particle that could
not be further divided or cut was the atomos.
Only in relatively recent times did it become
apparentthat even the atom was made up of
constituent parts, the nature ofwhich remains
an active field ofinvestigation.
atony (see tonus)
atopy is a near borrowing of the Greek atopos,
"out of place." This, in turn is a combination
of a- as a negative + topos "place." An atopic
reaction, such as an allergic dermatitis is
"out of place" in the sense of being unusual
or affecting only a minority of the population. The basis for atopy is now known to be a
peculiar immunopathy, inherent or acquired.
atresia is derived from a-, "without," + the
Greek tresis, "a hole." Thus, atresia is a condition wherein there is "no hole," i.e., there
should be an opening but there is not. The
term was first used in the 17th century. By
"atresia" we now refer to a failure of a structure to become hollow or tubular, as in a congenital defect, or to the collapse of a structure
once hollow. Atresia, either congenital or acquired, can result, for example, in obstruction of biliary ducts.
atrium was the Latin word for the open area in
the center ofa classic Roman house. The same
word is used in anatomy to describe the two
smaller chambers ofthe heart, which lead into
the larger ventricles. The atria (Latin neuter
plural) ofthe heart also have been called auricles, from the Latin auricula, "little ear,"
presumably because they resembled the
floppy ears of a dog. Another quaint name
for the inner recesses ofthe heartis "cockles,”
likening them to the bivalve mollusks ofthe
family Cardiiae. This name customarily is
used in a figurative sense for one’s innermost
feelings, as when one says, "It warms the
cockles of my heart."
atrophy is a close approximation of the Greek
atrophia, "a want or lack of nourishment,"
which links a-, "without," + trophe, "nourishment." The modern medical use is to designate the occurrence or consequence of
depletion in any organ or tissue. Moreover,
the sense of the term has been broadened to
include causes other than nutritional deficiency, as when we speak of muscular atrophy due to disuse.
atropine is named after Atropos, one ofthe trio
of Fates, all daughters of Themis who served
as counsel to Zeus. According to Greek
mythology, these goddesses controlled the
destiny of men and women. Of the three,
Atropos made the final and immutable decision. This explains the derivation of her
name from a-, "no," + the Greek tropos,
"turning [back]." Atropos usually was depicted as holding shears with which she cut
the threads that all human lives hang by.
The alkaloid atropine was obtained from a
genus of plants well known to be poisonous
(see belladonna). The drug in lethal doses
also could sever the thread of life, and so it
was named "atropine."
attenuate comes from the Latin verb attenuare,
"to weaken or diminish." The double "t" is
important because it indicates an additive
rather than a negative prefix. The Latin verb
was derived from ad-, "toward," + the adjective tenuis, "being thin, delicate, or puny." An
attenuated virus is one made weak or nonvirulent by various means.
auditory is from the Latin audire, "to hear or
give attention to." This, in turn, is derived
from the postulated Indo-European form
awei, "to become aware or to notice." The
same form, through Anglo-French, gives the
bailiff's cry "Oyez! Oyez!" ("Hear ye! Hear
ye!") as he calls for attention in the courtroom. The auditory or eighth cranial nerve is
the pathway by which the sense ofsound is
conveyed from the ear to the brain.
aura is the Latin word meaning "a breeze, a
wind, or an atmosphere." This, in turn, is related to the Greek aer, "breath." Now the word
26
auricle average
is used both in the sense of a premonitory
sign (as a quickening breeze might signal a
change in weather, or a visual sensation
might herald an epileptic seizure) and in the
sense of an emanation (as a halo).
auricle is from the Latin auricula, the diminutive of auris, "the ear." The external portion
of the ear or pinna was given this name because it is only a small part of the ear, the
main structure being inside the head.
"Auricle" also is used as a name for the
floppy appendage of the cardiac atrium, presumably because it looks like a little ear.
auscultation comes from the Latin auscultare,
"to listen keenly." The Latin word also carried
the connotation of obedience to what was
heard. Therefore, when we perform auscultation in the course of physical examination,
we are obliged to both listen intently and
heed what we hear.
aut-, auto- is a combining form taken from the
Greek autos, "self." Hence, autism, typically
observed in children, is an aberrant self-absorption in dreams or delusions to the exclusion of reality, i.e., all that is not "self." The
term (not the combining form) was coined in
1943 by Leo Kinner (1894-1981), an American
child psychologist.
autochthonous comes from the Greek autochthon, "of the land itself," which is derived
from auto-, "self," + chthon, "the earth." Thus,
to the Greeks an autochthon was an aboriginal inhabitant. In pathology, whatever is autochthonous is found in that part of the body
where it originates; for example, an autochthonous neoplasm.
autoclave is a hybrid word contrived from the
Greek auto-, "self," + the Latin clavis, "key."
The original device was a pressure cooker so
constructed that the generated steam tightened the lid. In other words, an autoclave is
"self-locking." The term now is used for the
chamber in which instruments are sterilized
by heat.
autocrine (see paracrine)
autogenous links auto-, "self," + the Greek
gennan, "to produce." The term, then, means
"self-produced." An autogenous vaccine is
produced by using bacteria obtained from
the patient for whom the vaccine is being
specifically prepared.
autoimmunity is arguably a Misnomer, linking as it does auto-, "self," + the Latin immunitas, "exemption, protection against." In
this sense, one might think the term means
protection against oneself. Indeed, this is
true, in that one's own inherent immune
system does not normally react adversely to
what it recognizes as "self." However, in
biomedicine "autoimmunity" is taken to
mean the opposite, i.e., an immune reaction
mounted against one’s own tissue components. An autoimmune disease is one in
which one's own tissues are attacked by either
humoral or cell-mediated immune reaction.
The argument, if there is one, is specious.
Everyone knows what is meant by "autoimmunity," and we can let it go atthat.
autonomic is a combination of auto-, "self,” +
the Greek nomos, "law." Accordingly, whatever is autonomous is "a law unto itself."
When the concept of the autonomic nervous
system was introduced in the early 19th century, it was thought the system was self-controlled and not under the governance of
higher centers in the brain. This is no longer
held to be true.
autopsy is a misapplied term when used to refer
to a postmortem examination. The Greek
autopsia (auto-, "self," + opsis, "seeing") meant,
in fact, "seeing oneself." According to Professor Alexander Gode (JAMA. 1965;191:121),
for the Greeks this had an even more mystical meaning in the sense of "a contemplative
state preceding the vision of God.” Galen
used autopsia to mean "personal inspection.”
Possibly from this sense came the application
of "autopsy," in the early 19th century, to
designate a dissection of a corpse, especially
with a view to establishing the cause of
death. Nevertheless, "autopsy" has little but
currency to recommend its use and, if "postmortem examination" is too cumbersome,
necropsy (Greek nekros, "corpse") is the preferred term.
average is not strictly a medical term but often
is used in scientific computation to denote
the arithmetic mean. The word has a French
ring to it and, indeed, it came from the Old
French avarie. Curiously, avarie meant
"damage in shipping,” and can be traced
back to the Arabic awariyah, "damaged
27
avoirdupois azygos
goods," the Arabic awar meaning "blemish.”
"Average" was first recorded in English about
1500 as a maritime term referring to any expense incurred by loss from damage to goods
during transit. Such expense was usually
borne evenly among the various parties in
the venture. Hence, "average" conveyed the
idea of "divided equally."
avoirdupois (see apothecary)
avulsion comes from the Latin avulsus, the part
participle of avellere, "to pluck, to pull away,
to tear off." This, in turn, is a combination of
a, ab-, "away," + vellere, "to pull." An avulsed
nerve is one that is torn away from its supporting structures, as by injury,
axenic (see gnotobiotics)
axilla is borrowed directly from the Latin. To
the Romans, as to us, the axilla was the
armpit. Its more remote derivation is uncertain. The Latin ala meant both "wing" and
"the hollow under a wing or arm," taken
from an earlier form axla, of which axilla is
the diminutive.
axis is the name ofthe second cervical vertebra,
presumably because the uppermost cervical
vertebra (the atlas) rotates around the odontoid process ofthe one below it. The Latin axis
means "axle or pole" and is related to the
Greek axon, and can be traced to the IndoEuropean ag, "to move." Axial refers to whatever is located on, around, or in the direction
of an axis. Computed axial tomography
(better known as CAT or CT scan; the latter
term is preferred by most radiologists, leaving the former to veterinarians) produces
images of transverse sections oriented in
series along the long axis ofthe body.
axone is an almost direct borrowing of the
Greek axon, "axle." The conducting core of a
nerve fiber, encased in a tubular sheath, is
the axis ofthe structure.
azo- is a prefix denoting the presence of nitrogen.
Thus, azotemia is "nitrogen in the blood"
(see nitrogen). The prefix comes from azote,
the name given to a newly discovered element
by Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743-1794), the
pioneering French chemist. The story is that
Lavoisier placed a lighted candle and a live
mouse in a sealed jar. When the candle was
extinguished, its flame having consumed all
the oxygen, the mouse, too, soon expired.
Lavoisier knew that gas remained in the jar
and observed that this gas was incapable of
supporting life. Thereupon he called the gas
azote, contriving the name from a-, "without," + the Greek zbe, "life." Lavoisier was a
little off the mark. The Greeks previously had
a word azotus, but it meant "ungirt." In this
instance, it appears that Lavoisier was caught
with his classical pants down.
Aztec two-step is one of a number of jocular
appellations given to the rigors of traveler's
diarrhea. Among others are Delhi belly,
Montezuma's revenge, and Teheran
trots.
azygos is the name given by Galen (131-201) to
the unpaired vein that traverses the right
thorax. The Greek azygos means "unyoked"
or "not a pair," and links a-, "without," +
zygon, "a yoke."